The Prinzessinnengruppe (Luise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and her sister Friederike) by Johann Gottfried Schadow, Friedrichswerder Church, Berlin, 1796 and 1797 – marble
The Prinzessinnengruppe (Luise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and her sister Friederike) by Johann Gottfried Schadow, plaster, Friedrichswerder Church, Berlin, 1796 and 1797 – Plaster
First Entry – Printed edition Schadow Gottfried 1764 To 1850 Polyclète ou théorie des mesures de l’homme
Second Entry – Lehre von den Knochen und Muskeln von den Verhaeltnissen des Menschlichen Koerpers – Johann Gottfried Schadow lesson drawings
Printed edition Schadow Gottfried 1764 To 1850 Polyclète ou théorie des mesures de l’homme Text Berlin Amsler and Ruthardt 1866.VII 141 S Reproduction Translation to English Universitatsbibliothek Heidelberg https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/schadow
POLYCLET
OR
CLAY THE HATRED OF MAN
ACCORDING TO THE “ESCÏÏLECHTE UM ALTER”,
WITH
INDICATION OF THE REAL GREATNESS
OF NATURE
ACCORDING TO THE RHINELAND FOLDING RULE
Dr. GOTTFRIED SCHADOW,
THEN COURT SCULPTOR S. JF. OF THE KING OF PRUSSIA, DIREC’I’OR THE KING.
ACADEMIE OF THE ARTS IN BERLIN, KNIGHT OF THE ORDER POUR LE MERITE, ETC.,
MEMBER OF THE ACADEMIES OF STOCKHOLM, DRESDEN, COPENHAGEN, ROME, MUNICH AND
VIENNA, CORRESPOND1RENDEM MEMBER OF THE ACADEMIES OF PARIS AND BRUSSELS, ETC., ETC.
L/jLifc Jtobowaiu/iqew.
SECOND UNCHANGED PRINT.
BERLIN.
VEELAG VON AMSLEK & EÜTHAEDT.
1 8 G 6. Yorrede.
(To the first issue. Berlin 1834.)
Préface.
(De la première édition. Berlin 1834.)
The introduction to the doctrine of the
conditions of the human body
may
be preceded by a few considerations concerning the fine arts in general
.
If mau, in the sense of the
mathematician, raises the question: what
lessons can be given in the visual arts
whose success
is a certain knowledge? one perceives
that it is only those
where the letter is not
enough, the lines make this doctrine
comprehensible and clear, thus confirming the
saying: that the art of education
begins where words
end.
To be included here are:
(1) the doctrine of the order of columns,
(2) the construction of shadows,
(3) perspective,
(4) the theory of bones and muscles,
(5) the relations according to
different ages and sexes.
Further, with the aid of lines
, lessons have been given:
on the Equilibre or the Pon-
dération;
on the expression of
passions ;
about the affectations and gestures, and
about the costume or the dress.
VI
Many books and treatises
are written of beauty,
grace, genius,
educational power, originality, style
, noble simplicity, quiet
grandeur, taste, and also of
colour and composition, after which a definite knowledge
can hardly be obtained after reading through it
with attention
; although one does not want to
misjudge the good and useful of it
.
The
principle laid down by Hofrath Hirt, which is generally applicable to the
fine and oratory arts, namely
, character, seems to us to be
the clearest and only
reliable guide, and now
that the analysis of bodies, the knowledge
of the true, the inclination towards
the natural has brought about,
this principle remain the only valid principle.
There are objects where
beauty or the ideal can be attached, others where
grace can be
applied neither in the form
nor in the cede, and when it happens, there arises
something false, ornamented, and inappropriate to the nature of the
object. The
addiction to applying elegant forms in all
shapes is probably the
reason for the many false and
modified works of art by otherwise
brilliant artists.
We consider it
superfluous for our readers to
give examples of what has been said, but we will pass on to the
means, forms of contemplation
.
VII. There are two: that of the
mathematician and that of the artist.
If the surveyor draws a triangle
and the painter a Cupid,
they want your observer
to hear what they had in mind
; Heide connect lines to form a whole: the one according to
certain laws, the other more largely
according to
feeling. The modest artist
silently admits to himself that his
presentation does
not correspond to what he had in mind; the surveyor is
sure to be understood: he is
the reliable one. None remaining in science
, but the
realm of visible beauty is
closed to him; when applied, it first opens
up in architecture.
The painters find themselves aided by the means
of the surveyor; they consider their
eye to be a sufficient substitute, and
fear that their use would destroy that
keiz which
freedom, ease, and freedom
give to their works.
The sculptor, since his manner of representation
is not abstract, can
make use
of the means of the surveyor from
all sides and without restriction; also the reliability in
this art field is the reason that
the deviations and degenerations
never went so far as in painting.
From the writings of the ancients it
is clear how they saisir les rapports the art of measuring
VIII
necessary for all the movements
of the arts of drawing; and if it is
proved that knowledge of the magnitudes
of the human body can be
acquired by the aid of the compass, this knowledge
will also be necessary
to the painter and the sculptor, since
it is only by positive
knowledge that one can acquire ease
combined with certainty: while
the imagination working alone, may
well highlight the artist’s happy dispositions
, but will only rarely
produce a masterpiece.
Der Verfasser.
The author.
The history
L’histoire
of the
de là
Doctrine of proportions.
théorie des prop
From the history of a doctrine of
the relations of the human
body it will be seen how
from the earliest times the masters
of art considered regulations necessary in this respect
; partly to
go to work with certainty in the
practice, — partly to impart to their pupils a
certain procedure.
To begin with the elders, we
are presented with the monuments of the
Egyptians. The historians praise
their skill and inclination
to the art of measurement, which they applied to
the knowledge of the earth and the heavens, to
their buildings and
sculptures. The latter, for their sculptures
, confirm these legends, and
although they lack that sense
of art which can be seen in the ancient Greek
works, all Egyptian ones show
the observation
of the correct measurements, both in the proportion
of heights and in the width and
thickness of the bodies; indeed, the majority
have no other merit and have
stopped at what may be called the craft
,
for this reason they have avoided the oblique view,
and in their half-sublime works
the parts are depicted straight from the front or
purely in profile; — so one sees
shoulders and torso quite en face
with the head and feet en
profile on the same figure.
The oldest Greek
works known to us, although approaching the
Egyptian style, already have
traces of
the gaze which one would like to call picturesque, in order to
signify that no
point of view limits it.
In the oldest sculptors’
workshops of the Greeks there was
probably already a canon
or leech for the dimensions of the human
body; as an example
of this, the group of
Aeginotes, which is located in Mimchen
, may suffice. The combatants have the same proportion in
all parts,
and also the same
formation in the facial features, in such a way that the female figure
belonging to them, a Minerva,
does not deviate from it.
Afterwards the masters found the
difference of proportions, as
shown by their
admirable works in marble, which have survived to us,
and that they wrote cones for this purpose is
testified by Pliny, Philostratus, and
Vitruvius, some of whose lines,
as the only remains, were used
by
the innovators for this doctrine.
Parrasius is said to have been one of the first
to give instructions
for symmetry (as the
Greeks called this doctrine). After these
, Asclepiodorus, Miron, Lisippus,
Eufranor, and several. Polycletos
gave a commen-
tai to these teachings, and made as a covering
the statue which received the name of Canon or
the Leeches exclusively.
It may be conjectured that that Commentai
– dos Polycletos had a purpose similar to
ours, and
11
, this
is the reason to use the name
Polycletos as a title.
After a long period of darkness, light
was
first spread again in Italy by bright spirits
in the sciences and arts. Giotto,
geh. 1276, d. 1336, is said to have written about the
conditions of the human body
. His cow as a
painter provided him with many pupils,
and as he was a clever artist,
it may well be assumed that he
was anxious for such a doctrine.
The same is said of Ghiberti,
of Pietro della Francesca and
of Ghirlandajo, whose writings
have been lost through time and carelessness
of the owners.
Leone Baptista Alberti, b.
1398, d. 1472, master builder and
painter. He wrote
10 books, which appeared in print in 1481
in Latin. It also speaks of the relations of the
human body
, and quotes those of Vitruvius
, who probably
took them from
an older Greek author.
Bramante, b. 1444, d. 1514,
wrote about the squaring of bodies
, and in it applied
it to the relations of the human
body. There is
no evidence of the existence
of these writings.
In Giuseppe Bossi’s Tractato
on Leonardo
da Vinci’s Last Supper, Milan 1810, it is said that
Luca Congiasio then composed the
human body of cubes and
triangles, and thus
determined its proportions.
12
According to this, those of Vincenzo
Foppa — from whom, according to
Lomazzo, Albert Dürer took his
Symmetria.
The Foppa flourished around 1410 and
wrote about the perspective.
Congiasio, a painter from Genoa,
died in 1585, was a good artist
and had many students.
Leonardo da Vinci, b. 1445,
d. 1520. Of his scattered
writings
, his Treatise on Painting
, published by the printer
Langlais in Paris in 1651, in Italian
and French. M.
Dufresne, into whose hands the manuscript
had come, received
the figures drawn
by Sticolo Poussin and took care of the
edition. Soon after, it was
translated into most European
languages. A more recent French
edition was published in 1796 by
Deterville in Paris. The attached
figures serve to
explain the text, and most of the readings
are
devoted to equilibrium (équilibre
pondération) and motion; but interwoven with notes
which determine the length of the
limbs.
Giuseppe Bossi has in the work
of the Last Supper a chapter of proportion
, in which drawings engraved
in copper after Leonardo –
First, the man, fitted in a
square and in a circle, and two
sheets of left and right profile of the
man, from which it can be seen how he
advises to draw the
head with the help of the measuring instruments.
13
In the text the man’s measures
of length are
given, and his opinion that these, but not
the breadths and thicknesses,
can be determined, on account of the infinite
variety in nature (immensa
misteriösa natura), and in order to prove the
delicacy with which he went to
work, Bossi quotes a passage,
3rd Edition Pag. 198, from the
Storia pittorica, according to which Leonardo
had divided the head into -248,832 parts. Whether this was done in order to express the
diversity of nature, or a satire on the
doctrine of proportions, he
left open to
question.
Leonardo promises
a great deal in his treatise, and has
also dealt with it a great deal; but
never satisfied himself.
However, he was the first to separate
the (volto) face and the (capo) or
skull. This must
be especially remarked here, because
those who followed and followed,
who gave proportions,
took the face as their standard
, but understood by it the scarcely
: from the chin down to the
hair-line; a measure which is
indeterminate, which is why the face is to be understood here in the work
: from
the chin to the upper band of the eye
socket.
In the edition of the Vitruvius of
John de Laet of Antwerp, there is
in the appendix : of Pomponius
Gauricus de Scultura an indication of 9
face lengths for the male
figure; For those of Philander, Salmasius
, Baldo, Milichio,
14
of a physician, and of the Dimentiosi de
Scultura, who assumed 10 face lengths for
the most part, which
latter, however, would
go far beyond the average size, namely, if the forehead and
nose were assumed
to be of the same length.
Paolo Pino, painter and scholar.
His Dialogo della pittura appeared
in 1548, and in it there are also
proportions indicated.
Jean Baptista Paggi, b. 1554,
d. In 1629, a painter of Genoa and
pupil of Luea Combiaso, gave
a table of proportions on
a sheet called 1601, acus nautica
(the magnetic needle). This
leaf has become very rare; it
is presumed that Testelin’s tables, etc.,
are an imitation of this.
Among the imitators are
Maria Equicola, Nicolo Franco
and Bertano, explainers of Vitruvius.
The famous Cardanus (in the Uten
Buch de Sübtilitate) divides the
grain into 180 parts, and gives the head 24 of these
, which is 7 lh the length
of the head; a proportion that is quite
reasonable.
Girolamo Ruscelli, born in 1540,
master builder, afterwards clergyman, also wrote
of this symmetria, but full of
errors.
Francesco Mazzuoli, called
Parmeggiano, born in 1504. There is a sheet of proportion from ilrm
,
engraved by Benigno Bossi. The
conditions are too slim.
There is also said to be a
single sheet of Michel Angelo, on
which the man’s circumstances are described
. — Otherwise his statement
was always: the artist must keep an eye on the
compass.
15
Johann Paul Lomazzo, b. 1538,
d. In 1598, a painter at Milan,
Wind became in his 31st year. In his
writings: Idea del Tempio della
pittura, and Groteschi poetici, he
gives skittles for painters and sculptors; the
proportions contained in it seem
to be taken after those of Albert Dürer
.
Giovan Baptista Armenini of
Paenza is said to have worked
under Uafaël. He is still more famous for
his writings, which appeared at
Kavenne in 1587, under the title:
veri precetti della pittura, and in
which the proportions of the human
body are also indicated.
Cavalière Bisagno, in his
trattato di pittura, has
copied all his errors.
Daniel Barbaro, a Venetian,
later Patriarch of Aquileia, died
in 1561. He wrote about Vitruvius
and a practica della perspectiva,
printed in 1559. Of his proportions
of the human body he
asserts that they hold the middle between
the minutes of Albert
Dürer and the too general of
Vitruvius. He makes use of the customs
(pollici).
Vincenz Macolano, called Fiorenzuola
, born 1578, d. 1667, who
afterwards became cardinal, had built a lot
. He also
wrote about proportions in his
writings. * •
Pietro Antonio Barca, Ingegnere
Milanese, has given a treatise on
painting, and on a
bow the proportions of Jupiter,
Hercules, Minerva, and
16
Tenus, printed in 1620.
This leaf is called a jewel of typography and
calcography, and is very rare.
Marco, di Pino, “known as
Marco di Siena, d.
1587. In Naples, where he painted a great deal,
he wrote an extensive book on
painting.
Johann Baptista Trotti, known as
Molosso, flourished. 1600 in Parma.
He was a good painter, and his
proportions can be
considered to have come
from the school of Caracci, although he was a pupil of the
Campi of Cremona, who also
wrote a book on painting and sculpture
.
Enea Sulmeggia of Bergamo,
one of the best painters at the beginning
of the seventeenth century, in the midst
of the depravity of
taste at that time, published a book on the
proportions in 1607, which
is praised: — but the plates for it
are missing.
Johann Baptista Volpato, born
in Bassano 1633, d. In 1706, a painter
without a master, wrote a book:
La verità pittorosca. In 1685 his Vagante Corriero appeared
at Vicenza,
— in which tables on the
portals. One. considers that his
so-called truths are not to
be trusted.
In a kleinon book: il disogno
del Doni, a profile of
Baccio Bandinelli is given, which was not recognized as
useful. There are still some of this nation to name who are
not known, or who only repeat what
has already been given.
Giuseppe Longhi, d. 1831, the
famous engraver, gives in his
17
ner Calcographia, which was published in Milan
in 1830, a sheet on which seven and twenty profiles in
three sections, and three heads en face can be
seen.
Remarkable and charming is his
description of a female being,
whom we call pretty in German,
and who, although deviating from
what comes near
to the Greek ideal, nevertheless has a larger feature
.
From the Spaniards.
Sansovino, in his varie lezione
, praises a Spanish
sculptor, named Philippo Borgogna,
who is said to have given proportions,
and to the height of the man nine and
one-third the length of his face.
Johann Arpho de Villafanno,
a sculptor of Seville, published a book
there in 1589: On Anatomy
and Symmetry, which is
praised.
Chrisostome Martinez, lived at
Paris 16GO, where he studied anatomy with much zeal
. He lived in
seclusion and abstinence. Among
his few friends was the
famous Audran.
Of this Martinez we
see two large sheets: one contains
the proportions of the man, stripped of the
skin, and the whole height
assumed to be 8 head-lengths, in
the old convenient way; the
other several figures standing and
sitting, namely skeletons. In particular
, the seated ones are unique in their
kind and may be cited
as models; for this the famous anatomist Wins-Espagnols
recognized her even at
that time.
18
low. Both sheets, which Martinez
himself drew and engraved,
became the property of the Royal
Paris Academy of Art, as a
printed exposition par Ordre de l’Académie
Boyale de peinture 1,740 states.
Alonso Berrugueto, born in
Parades de Nova, d. In 1545 or 1561
he occupied himself excellently with a strict
examination of the conditions of the
human body.
Of the Dutch, it is worth mentioning : Parmi les Hollandais nous citons :
Samuel van Hoogstraeten, born in
1627 in Dortrecht, a good painter
and poet. His Schilderkunst,
printed in Rotterdam 1678, contains in the
2nd book, called Polymnia: a
skeleton and a muscleman, and
for the proportions, first: a sheet
with two men in three views,
face, back and profile, the one
in 15 parts, the other in 16 parts;
these he calls palm trees. To the head he
gives 2 palms in height, so
that one measures 7’/* head in the whole
height, and the other 8 heads;
in thickness and width he kept both
the same.
Furthermore, a leaf of the woman, in five
views of the same size; also in
fifteen parts: 7 to the pubic
area and 7 to the line of the eye, whereby
the thighs become shorter than the
upper body. Both have tables that
indicate the widths.
In both, man and woman, the arms and hands are
too short, and do not
give Samuel van Hoogstraeten, né
19
the whole height; otherwise these
proportions would be among the most
sensible.
On a third sheet we see
two children’s proportions of
different ages, as to 4 head
lengths and to 5 head lengths.
The pictorial representation, namely
, with shadow and light, adds to
the clarity of the doctrine; the extremities, such as the head, hands
and passports, are also
little taken into account.
Gerard de Lairesse, born in Liège
1640, d. 1711. In his 50th
year he became blind; but with the help of his son and his pupils he
published his great painter’s book, in which
the cones given
by predecessors, especially those of
Leonardo, reappear, enriched with his
own observations, and
explained with many examples.
There are 2 sheet proportions, namely:
the man and the woman, which, however
, are by no means to be praised and are far inferior to those
of Hoogstraeten;
which is not the same case with
the paintings of both masters, in that Lairesse
possessed
the noblest style among the Dutch painters.
Jacob de Witt’s Teekenbock
der Proportion was published at Amsterdam
in 1747 with a French
translation. This de Witt is
particularly famous for its deceptive
imitation of bas-reliefs.
Of French artists,
Jean Cousin of Souci at Sens is to be mentioned
first.
D’Argenville says that he was still
alive in 1589, and Fuesly says that in 1590
he was
20
88 years old, died. Under four
kings of France he worked with
fame: first in glass
painting, then in oil; he also excelled
in sculpture.
Although France already had
at that time skilful portrait painters, there was
still a lack of painters of events, and
Jean Cousin is considered to be the first good
in this higher subject.
The
Primaticcio was prescribed from Italy, and it was a long
time before one gave one’s own
countryman his due euf
; and it is only recently that they have
begun to
publish careful outlines
of his surviving works.
He has written several things,
from which it can be seen
the intention to use geometry in the representation of the living
. In addition to a
book of signs and proportions of the
human body, he gave a
method of shortening it according to
perspectival rules in all positions
. To make this
possible, he imagined
the individual parts enclosed in square blocks
; Head, neck, torso, and
thighs in elongated blocks, etc
. When an artist of such great skill, and who has done well of his
own free will, undertakes this
laborious work, he can only try to convince himself
and others how
this is the only way for the artist to
obtain a thorough
knowledge.
Nicolas Poussin, b. 1594, d.
1665. In his biography
of Bellori it is said: It was
his intention to write Leonardo da est
21
Vinci
. This is followed by Poussin’s
own superficial thoughts, consisting in definitions
and observations, in the manner in which
Leonardo’s own, and conclude these
with measurements taken from the
statue of Antinous, who now
has the name of Meleager; but
only indicated in writing, because
the drawings for it are missing.
Dupuis du G-rez, b. 1640 d.
1720, founded a drawing school in
Toulouse, and gave a: traité de
la peinture 1699, in which proportions occur.
Henri Testelin, b. 1616, d.
1695. This painter wrote the:
Conferences de l’académie avec les sentimens
des plus habiles peintres, and
in it are also given measurements of the
human body.
André Bardou, a painter, founded
a drawing school in Marseille. Several
writings on painting and sculpture
have
been published by him around the year 1765. Among these
are also given proportions for the human
body, which differ slightly from the tables of Testelin
and are still determined
according to the length of the face: 2 tables for man and woman,
then the 3, 4, 5 and 6-year-old child.
Hilaire Pader, the painter, gave
a
translation of Paul Lomazzo’s writings into French,
which appeared in 1649 in Polio with
the title:
“traité de la proportion naturelle
et artificielle des choses.”
The plates of Albert Dürer are
copied exactly; however, the name of Diirer is
not mentioned in the text,
22
Durer, if not in the preface,
where he is named a great geometer.
He says of the proportions that it is a
marvellous doctrine, but he advises
not to lose oneself too much in this
ocean, whatever charm one may find in it
.
Claude Audran. There are nine artists
of this name. The man we have just
named was a painter and attached
to the famous Lebrun. His measurements
of ancient statues (under the
title: The proportions of the human
body 1683, in folio, by Girard Au-
dran, engraver to the king) are the
most reliable and reliable. more solid than
anything that has been written, either before
or after him, on proportions;
and although he has not properly established
a system, one can be built
on the proportions it gives, and
which, taken from marble with the
compass and curved compass, give a
certainty to the artist which is not attained
by a glance.
They have been consulted in the carriages
of sculptors, in several
countries they have been copied, adding
to them the translation of thection of the text.
The proportions are varied like
nature, and such as the character
of the deities represented requires.
Audran says that he is not owed
any praise, and that if he praises them,
the honor belongs to those great
masters who have established in their works
what he only repeats.
Watelet, a wealthy amateur, who engraved
in etching, published in 1760
a poem: The Art of Painting. In
the reflections that accompany it there
is a chapter for proportions;
23
chapters for the proportions; the measurements
given seem to have been taken from those
of Audran, although he
is not named. There are 2 sheets
of the outlines of Antinous and Venus
with some measures of length, but fleeting
and lightly drawn.
Bouchardon, a famous
sculptor, born 1698 d. 1762. His
drawn acts, engraved by Demarteau
in the Crajon manner, served for
a long time as models in all
drawing schools. He gave an analysis
for artists and a proportional
representation of the male pigur, which contains no
more than that given by Watelet
.
Charles Antoine Jombert.
His work, Méthode pour apprendre
le dessin, was published at Paris in 1755 in
Quarto, containing many coppers, ïheile
des menschlichen Körpers und gezeichneten
Academien von Cochin
.
In the fourth chapter, the ancient
statues measured by
the painter Corneille, in much smaller pormates than Audran’s
, are also several.
The measurements seem to be given with
accuracy.
It is noteworthy that he has adopted
the chamfer as a measuring rod; in order to obtain the parts,
he divided them in six minutes.
This Jean Baptiste Corneille,
born 1646 d. 1684, would have
made
his measurements long before such appeared here.
The style in the works of
Corneille, which is severe and serious,
contrasts very much with that
of Cochin. In the second chapter,
cond chapter a historical
overview of the lessons of the proportions of
Policletus, Vitruvius, Albert Durer
, and others. In addition,
there are details on the entire technical
part of the painting; and in this respect
this work is one of the most complete.
The famous painter Horace Vernet,
our contemporary, director of the French Academy
in Rome, has published two
large sheets relating to the propor-
tions. The first, containing the text,
is entitled: Table of the skeleton of
man for the course of Zoonomy,
considered in its relations with the
arts. The second, a
lithographed plate, shows the male skeleton seen
from behind, that of the woman opposite
, and that of the child at five years old
in profile.
Vernet is the first artist who
has indicated the measurements of the parts,
according to a known metre, instead of
using a scale, as was
customary until now, of a
part of the human body, the head
or the foot.
As works of art are
seldom of the same size as
nature, it was thought that do better by
determining the reciprocal proportions of the limbs
according to the foot or the
head; this manner presents its
advantages, ‘ since the first sketches
are drawn on the paper in small size;
the same is true of the studies for
the whole work, after nature or
after the mannequin; the cartoons of
the large fresco paintings are transmitted
by means of a net; we can therefore
rightly admit that before him most
artists have never known
the true greatness of the parts.
25
paintings were
transferred to the “definite size” with the help of a
net, and so it may be assumed
that the most modern artists never learned the actual
size of the parts.
This may be the reason for the many
heads in which the
mouth slit is too small and the hands and feet
too short; Mistakes that
do not occur in the
sculptures of the Greeks.
In the two sheets of Horace
Vernet, an
explanation of the bones is given on the one with text;
the functions of
cartilage, ligaments and tendons are described. In two
columns are given
in numbers the whole height and the proportions
of the individual parts of the children of
5, 10 and 14 years, and so for the
man and the woman.
In the small tree a wealth of science is crowded together,
and the manner of
interpretation is
calculated for the convenience of the
artists, since both sheets
can always remain before sight
as tools of the trade in the workshops,
on the wall.
John Chamberlain published in
London in 1796 by Leonardo
da Vinci hand drawings, which are
in the cabinet of the King of England
. Below are the skeletons
with the inverted writing (to be read from the
mirror), where proportions are also indicated
in the explanations
.
In the above-mentioned treatise
on painting, where Leonardo gives portions
, these
refer to living nature. This way
of measuring is followed in the following-
26
, in that many joint joints and bone margins
remain hidden under the skin
, even an analysis carried too far
robs the artist of time without
benefit. In Chamberlain’s
notebook one learns many interesting things about
Leonardo that
are not to be found elsewhere. This
survey of French artists
who wrote
about proportions is not complete, and could
only become so in the self.
Of English artists
, the Italians cite a certain
Cozens, who has given proportions over the human
head which
are strongly reproached.
Flaxmann, who is best known
for his outlines of the Iliad, Dante
, etc., in his academic
lectures to the scholars, in addition to
the lectures on motion,
has said something about proportion,
and has indicated the division of the figure into
square and compass.
Vidi: lectures on sculpture by John
Flaxmann, Esq. professor of sculp-
ture in the royal académie. London,
John Murray 1829.
Of the German artists:
Albert Dürer, born 1470, d.
1528. Notwithstanding his poetic
spirit, he possessed a penchant for
certain knowledge. He applied his
mathematical knowledge to
the buildings, to his work of
fortifications, and to the perspective
, which he possessed well. He was
the first to take part in the
27
The design of the human body
tried to
apply it with such detail. For the individual
parts of the human body, its indication is
: how many parts
of the whole which is
inconvenient for smoking; in the male figure,
one is only natural, and
seems to have been taken
from a living one. The other figures
seem to have been created by
drawing eectangels (elongated
squares) from squares, which produced
an
excessive slenderness.
Michel Angelo, who otherwise held Albert
Dürer in high esteem, is said to have said of the
Book of Proportions:
“poca e debole cosa questo Libro,”
always insisting that the artist
should keep an eye
on the compass (Sesta).
Even more severe is the statement
of Leonardo da Vinci, who, after
considering the paintings of Michel
Angelo, said that he found the muscles in his
painted children in
the same number and as strongly
indicated as in the adult figures
.
Fiorillo says, pag. 360. 2nd volume:
Dürer’s paintings and writings, which
were distributed throughout Europe,
caused a great sensation even in the most
distant countries. In Spain
at that time the cones were adopted over
the proportions of the human
body of Alonzo Berrugante,
who had been formed in Italy and
was held in great esteem.
But some artists began
to doubt whether they were not rather
28
were to follow
the system of Pomponio Gaurico, Filippo de Borgonna,
or perhaps
even the precepts of Dürer; whose book on symmetry
was also translated
into Portuguese as early as
1599 from an Italian
translation. Fernando Gallegos from
Salamanca is said to have travelled to Albert Dürer
, etc., which, however, is refuted by
Bermudez. Furthermore, Louis da Costa, born in
Lisbon in 1599, is
named as translator of the
book: “Quattro Livros de Simetria
dos Corpos humanos compostos por
Alberto Dureiro,” and is dedicated to St.
Lucas.
Joachim von Sandrart, born in 1688,
published a large work: German
Painter, Sculpture and Building
Academy, in which many cones and
regulations. For the proportion of the
human body
, however, he chose the above work of Au,
and copied its measurements
of the ancient statues.
George Bergmüller, born in 1688
at Dürkheim in Bavaria, a good
painter in oil and fresco, and director
of the Académie in Augsburg.
Of this is. the Anthropometria,
printed in 1723. In the preface he says
that highly gifted
men had endeavored to guide the youth in this
main doctrine, both by
pictures and in accompanying descriptions
, and especially by the “famous”
Albert Dürer;
In the tables are the figures
from birth to the 24th year,
29
namely: male; the female
, however, is the same adult.
Painstaking contemplation and careful
contemplation of nature,
he believes, brought the work to fruition
and lit a great light
on art. A look at the tablets
and a closer examination show
that he followed a system of
his own creation rather than the laws of nature
.
George Lichtensteger, engraver
in Nuremberg.
In 1746 he published the Arithmetic
and Geometry of the Human
Portion.
The text resembles that of an adept
. He cites the dimensions of Noah’s
Ark, the tabernacle and temple of
Solomon, and the New Jerusalem;
then St. Augustine, and
praises the mathematician Adelbulner
in Altorf, from whom he has the information
according to which the numbers of harmonic
proportion in music
give the same for the eye.
In the attached figures
he makes use of straight lines for the most part,
and the teaching is completely incomprehensible to drawing
artists.
Daniel Preisler, b. 1666, d.
1737 Director of the Painters’ Academy in
Nuremberg. Of this is the book of drawings
, which bears the title: “The
Practice Invented by Theory,” and
which for a long time has been used in all drawing
30
schools in Germany
. Added to this by
his son:
Justin Preisler, born in 1698, is
the 4th part which gives the proportions
of the human body,
as: on the first plate that of a
child of 4 head lengths ; the head
individually en face and in profile.
On the second plate the female
proportion in 3 views, divided
into 8 head lengths. On the third
panel, 7 figures male, from child
to full-grown man, where
three lines in all figures touch the crown,
navel and floor.
Apart from the lengths, the widths are
not given, and the view of the figures is from the
front.
Joseph. Mattersberger, a
sculptor, d. zu Breslau 1827. Of
this there are eleven copper plates
with proportions, as: the 3-year-old
child, the 7th, 12th, 18th and 24th
year; a man, a Hercules,
a slender and a fat woman.
This last sheet is as Albert Dürer gives it
. On the outside, these
sheets are not very promising, text is
not included and the enclosed
numbers must suffice;
nevertheless, on closer examination
, it contains many good things.
Rafaël Mengs has indicated on a
sheet of paper a method of
applying a
well-proportioned head geometrically. But it is not
advisable to follow them, even if it is
the unsuccessful result of
brooding.
31
By J. H. Meil was published in Berlin
in 1789 : Instruction in drawing
for children, in which there are some things concerning proportion
, which,
accompanied
by a pair of small outlines, contains good eaths.
In 1799
, an unnamed person published an art
of drawing in Königsberg, where proportions
with outlines belonging to
the weakest are attached.
Pflugfelder, a painter in Hanover, published a book
of drawings in
1805, in polio, with 5 sheets of portions
, of which the same can be said
.
In an old book, in the Sanscrit
language, called Silpi Sastri, i.e.
, of the fine arts, it is
taught as follows:
A line is divided into 480 thle.
Hair…. 15″
face….. 55″
Neck…… 25″
Chest….. 55 “
to navel . . . . 55 ,,
abdomen …. 53″
to knee…. 90″
Knee …… 30 “
the leg . . . . 102 “
480 ” this
gives not quite 7 Va head length,
and seems to have been taken from a
well-educated man.
In the case of the many drawing schools in
Germany and in Prankreich, it can
probably be assumed that many things
concerning this doctrine
have gone out that have not been known here.
Giuseppe Bossi, in his Cenacolo
, states that the ancients wrote this
32
this theory by the following names
:
Simetria, Pliny the Elder;
Analogia, Philostratus the Younger;
Comedita and Equita di Membra
Suetonius;
Equalita and Congruenza, Pliny the
Younger;
Commisuramento, Vitruvius;
Convenienza de parti et atta Com-
posizione di Membra, Cicero,
Reciproca competenza di Membra,
Aulus Gellius.
The author admits that the ancients understood
under these different denominations
: the Eelazione armonica délie
parti, i.e., the harmony of the parts
among themselves, and their relation to the whole
which they compose.
However many
artists, scholars and physicians
have written on it. the proportions, their works,
are only
fragments. Many of them have
only copied. What are the effects of
growth, what is the difference
between the sexes in facial features,
in youth and in old age,
the proportions of the child at birth
, these are all questions which
have never been examined by
science, and to which no answer has been
given.
Artists contented themselves with
taking from nature the models
that were within their reach. The amateurs
who commissioned paintings, not knowing the knot,
did not look closely at
it. In spite of this, the
paintings of
Dominichino at Grotta Ferrata, and those
of Albano will always be esteemed for the richness of their
conformities. It is true that the general
33
nie replaces the rules of theory.
The eye of a Raphael is like a
mathematical instrument. The most perfect harmony
reigns in all
his figures, from the top of the head
to the soles of the feet; Hands
and feet are never too small
. Already his disciple, Julio Romano
, rarely presents this
variety of proportions, and however
great Michel Angelb may be, it
cannot be concealed that in his
compositions he often presents the
same figure.
Before Raphael, Masolino and others
represented adolescents,
with girlish cheeks and young men,
who are indeed smaller than grown men
, but who, instead of offering the
forms of their age, are only small
grown men.
In the time of Pietro Cortona, Ciroferri
, Luca Giordano, the artists
used the same man,
the same woman, the child
memo to make them reappear in the most different atmospheres
; but by
dint of talent they succeeded in completing
the greatest works with
ease and with astonishing rapidity.
Science is constantly making
progress; with it the taste for
truth must also develop in the
arts, and banish the conventional
1q formerly in use in the schools.
But while researches
in the vegetable and animal kingdoms have
led to great results, the so perfect analysis
of the human body by
anatomes had not yet
led to 3
34
Gestaltung’ of the same, set up in a doctrine
, little gothan.
Following here, the defectiveness
will soon
be noticed by skilful observers
among the artists; but consider
indulgently how in many parts it is an
almost new path which had to
be trodden, and for which a long
series of years was required
to collect the materials in
chronological order.
Appendix to the proportions. Supplément aux proportions.
. (From the Memoirs of the King!. Académie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin:
Abhandlung des Hofrath Hirt, “wohei
ein Blatt die gezeichnete Proportion
des Mannes darstellen.)
According to most of
the information that has come from the canon of Polyclet in
Uris, it would be believed
that the most essential part of it
consisted in a statue,
which was chiefly made for the purpose
of showing the beautiful proportions of the human structure in a youth
who had matured into a
man. Pliny (34.19.2.), dealing with
the works of Polyclet, says:
“Let him also produce what the artists
call the canon,
conforming in their outlines to it as to
a legal precept ;”
and Polyclet was therefore regarded as the
master who
represented the artist himself by means of a
work of art.
The following passage
from Galenus (de Tcmperancia 1.9.):
-Die Bidner, Maler, Bildhauer und
35
Doryphorus nicht abschrecken lassen,
pteurs do not represent the most ideal forms
produced by each
species, e.g. man, horse,
bull or lion in the
most perfect form, putting all their attention
into the to find the middle term between
the different productions of the nation
. A statue of Polykleitos, called
the Canon, has a great reputation.
This name was given to it because
all its parts are in
the most perfect harmony.
Lucian (de Saltat., p. 946.), who
compares the figure of the perfect
dancer to the Canon of Polykleitos, gives
us a negative description of it in these terms:
“Let the dancer be neither too stretched out
nor too small, let him have neither too much embellishment
(which would be a
misinterpretation with him) nor too thin, let him
not be like a skeleton,
covered only of skin, but its
construction and size must present
the aspect of the most perfect
harmony in all proportions.”
Others call the statue of Polycletus
Doryphorus — spear-bearer
— and not Cannon. Cicero says
(de clar. Orat. c. 86.): “You have taken
for your model the discourse on the law of
Servilius, as Lysippus took
for your model the Doryphorus of
Polycletus.” And to another in law (Orat.
ad Brut. c. 2.) it is said: “The statue
of the Olympian Jupiter and that of the
Doryphorus did not prevent other artists
from trying how far they
would reach by their studies.”
3*
36
Quintilian (5. 12) cites the Dory-
phore as the model of a perfect statue
; he says: “The most famous painters and
sculptors, in wishing to
represent the most
beautiful proportions of the body, have never fallen
into the error of taking as
a model a Bagoas or a Megabize, but they have imitated the Doryphorus,
whose
body is as fit for war
as for gymnastic games.”
These quotations could lead one to believe
that the Canon and the Doryphorus are
one and the same statue. But
Pliny (1. c.) seems not to be of
this opinion; he seems to distinguish one
from the other. It is almost beyond doubt
that Pliny was in
error (which often happens to him in his
reports on art) or that a poor
punctuation gave rise to a
misinterpretation, which is more likely
: “Polycletus — Diadumenum
fecit molliter juvenum, centum talen-
tis nobilitatum: idem et Doryphorum
viriliter puerum. Pecit et quem Ca-
nona artifices vocant, lineamenta artis
ex eo potentes, volut alego quadametc.”
According to my opinion, it is enough to
erase the period after PUERÜM, and to
place a comma after FECIT, to
make Pliny say what seems to be true
, according to the authors quoted
above, namely, that the Doryphorus
was precisely the statue called
Canon by the artists. If we know that
37
then astonishes that the statue of the Canon
must necessarily have an attitude
that represents as little as
possible the limbs in foreshortening,
the attitude of a Doryphorus seems to be
the most suitable. Moreover, if I
am not mistaken, the denomination of
Canon was not the principal name,
but rather an additional
denomination of the statue; for the Canon
proper, as properly said, was a writing in
which Polykleitos had fixed the laws of
proportions. Galena in the following piece
(from Placit. Hippocr. and Plat. 5.
p. 288. ed. Basil.) is more
fully explained. He says: “The beauty of the body
consists in the harmony of the parts,
as Polykleitos shows in his
Canon; for this master gives in this
work the lessons of all the propor-
tions of the body, and proves the truth
by a work of art. He
composed, according to the laws of his system, a
statue to which he also
gave the name of Canon.”
Polykleitos, who by his Canon had
such a happy influence on the schools
of art among the ancients, was a
native of Sicyon. A disciple of Ageladas, he
lived in the age of Pericles, that
famous time which saw the rapid development
of the art of the Greeks. He
was as great an architect as he was a great
sculptor. Its theatre and pantheon
, erected at Epidauro, are still
38
still cited as models of
beautiful proportions (Paus. 2. 27.). It
appears, however, that he was neither the
only nor the first artist of his century
who deserved well from the study of beautiful
proportions. Myron, his fellow student
and rival, is reputed to have
observed even more strictly in
his compositions the harmony of the parts
(Pliny 34. 19. §. 3.), Parrhasius
and Zeuxis, contemporaries of these sculptors
, were the first to
introduce more severe proportions into painting
. Zeuxis seems to have allowed
himself the essential deviations from the Canon
of Polykleitos, for not only does he
give more grandeur to the heads
and joints, but he gives still
more volume to all the limbs,
believing that by this he produces the effect of
Greatness; in this he followed the example
of Homer, who loved heroic
forms, even in women (Plin.
35. 36. §. 2. and 5., cf. Quint. 12. 10.)
Later there were others who
exercised their sagacity in the study
of proportions. Euphranor, who lived
in thehe 104th Olympiad, a great
painter and sculptor, wrote
on the same subject. His figures
are generally slender, but the heads
and joints present the character
of the Grandiose (Pliny 35. 40. §. 25.).
Lysippus, while acknowledging the
Doryphoros of Polykleitos as his
model and master (Cic. de clar. Orat.
c. 86.) went further in the study of
proportions; he represented the heads smaller
and the bodies more slender than
the old masters had made; I
thought by this to give more appearance
39
to his statues. Thus it was that Pei used >
made deviations that had
never been imagined, by departing from the
collected figures of the old masters
(quadratus, terpàycovoç) by saying:
“That his predecessors had represented
men as they are, but
that he represented them as they
appeared” (Plin. 34. 19. §. G.).
But just as we should expect
others to allow themselves slight deviations from
the Canon of
Polykleitos, since the determination of these
rules depends very much on the finesse
of taste and optical experiments,
so we must admit with certainty
that Polykleitos is not the prer.
He has reflected on the essence of
proportions, but that the need to have
laws on so important an object
was already felt earlier in the
schools of the arts. We have no
news of these first tests. But
we cannot pass under si-
lence what Diodorus (1. 98.) tells us
about two ancient masters
, Taleclos and Theodore of Samos, sons
of Phoec.us. They had studied art
in Egypt and brought back from that
country a particular method of measuring
the human body, applicable to
sculpture. Thus it was that on their
return they formed for themselves “the state
of the Pythian Apollo for their
native city; one made half of the
statue at Samos and the other
at Ephesus. When they united the
two halves, they were in the most perfect harmony
. which proves
that the artists had not failed
to take the measures given. In the manner
40
of the Egyptian sculptors, the two brothers
divided the whole body into twenty
parts, plus a quarter; they were thus able to give
to each part the tenth
of the volume that was due to it.
This proves that the
Egyptians, of whom the Greeks were the
disciplines, already had a kind of Canon
for the proportions of the human
body on which they composed their
statues. But we can be
convinced by the Egyptian sculptures
that this cannon was only a technical
means of easily forming a clay sta-
tue, in order to work
it afterwards in wood or in some other
material. The reflection on the essence
and beauty of the human figure, which
results from the harmonio of the parts, was nowhere to be found
. But however somewhat
developed the art which the
Egyptians transmitted to the Greeks, it must be
confessed that the method of measuring the
limbs of the human figure was
a considerable step taken in the interest
of the arts. The way was cleared for the
Greeks, so capable of feeling the
beauty of harmony. Little by little they
succeeded in choosing between the beautiful
figures, which presented themselves to them in
a great variety, the average measure,
and by degrees they arrived at the Canon
which will always remain a rule for
art, and a principle of criticism for
beauty.
41
My foot of the Khin is divided into 12
inches and the inch into 8 lines.
The decimal measure is praised.
Application proves that the twelve-part part offers more
facilities than the ten-part part
. The
division of the thumb into eight lines
prevents any error.
This measure owes its origin to
the foot of a man of
considerable size; the foot of a man of average
figure is only ten inches
in length.
Our Berlin alder is a little
longer than the size of the foot
taken twice; in other places
the alder is exactly the size
of two feet, while the naturo
almost always gives the same length
to these parts (elbow and foot).
The plates intended to
present to us visibly the proportions of the
human body, limit themselves to indicating
the proportions of the male child, and
continue in this way to the man made
of the height of 5 feet and a half.
I have thought it necessary, however, to add
the following, and to indicate the infinite diversity
of nature, and because
art often needs greater
statures and dimensions
.
42
The first two plates, containing:
the proportions of the head.
The same motives, which make drawing lessons begin
with the head,
here require us to place the proportions
of the head before those of the
total figure of man; In the school
of drawing, we even start with
the parts of the face. Nature gives
the head in the womb more development
than all the other parts
. In the schools of drawing, they
begin with the parts of the face,
to prepare the pupil to grasp the total
. It is supposed that draughtsmen
who are a little practised will be able to understand
and grasp our observations. ,.
The first row of the first
plate shows five heads of three
ages, namely: that of the child, that
of middle age, and that of old age.
The head must be regarded as being
composed of two parts:
1) the top of the head, or the part
which contains the brain;
2) the lower part of the head
or face, from the upper edge
of the eye
cavity to the lower edge of the
menton.
This part contains the organs of
4 senses: sight, hearing, taste,
smell; The skin that covers the cheek
has more mobility than anywhere else.
To fix the proportions of the
head I have limited myself to three ages,
43
because a greater number of
pro- portions would detract from the clarity of the
demonstrations. This is the reason which led
me to place later details
after having given the proportions of
the whole figure.
I admit as a fixed line that
which crosses the upper edge of the
eye cavity.
The face of the man made is five
inches long. Two
perpendicular lines, equally
five inches apart, form the square
of the face, which has been received for all
the heads.
The measurement of 3 inches from the external angle
from one eye to the other was
received equally for all faces.
The small extent which growth
gives to this measure, compared
with that which the length of the screw
attains,
for the child of . . . 3 inches
to 3Vî “
and for the man made of 3’A; “
a j “
show on plate p. the essential difference
in age.
We see the female head between the
head of the child and that of the man.
The length of the face has been fixed at
47 inches, i.e. half an inch
less than that of the man; as
the space of the eyes 3 7* inches is the
same for both heads, the oval of
the woman must appear rounder than
that of the man.
So far these observations
have not been given in any treatise on
drawing.
44
The forehead has always been included
in the division of the face; I have
not given the measure of it because of the line
where the hair begins
indefinitely vario.
As far as the skull is concerned, we
notice on the plate the little
difference there is in its extent
between the age of the child and that of the
wife of……… 57″ inches
in width . . . 6 “
and in the height from 3 “
to 37 “
We have given for the man made
the very rare extent of 4 inches of height
and G7 inches of width. This
shows that the growth of the parts
which enclose the skull is much
less than that of the parts of the
face.
Six equal divisions were made for
faces of all ages and of
both sexes.
From the invariable line,
which crosses the upper edge of the
eye cavity:
the first division (descending
) passes the angles of
the eyes;
the third division crosses the lower edge of the
nostrils;
the fourth — the opening of
the mouth, and
the sixth — the edge of the chin.
It is only in the head of the man
that the four squares are of
the same width and height
at 27 inches, in the female
heads and in those of the children the
height is less than the width:
r width 27 inches
reufant i height SEEN “
Usually the eyes of children
45
are somewhat smaller than those of
people of completed growth;
but the coloured part in which the Iris has
attained all its size in the third
year, it is sometimes larger
than that of the elderly, in
whom the whites
of the eyes are more visible. The eyes of newly-born
children and children of a young age
have little white. This part is
the most developed in the uterus.
The diameter of the Iris is less
than 7s inch or 37s lines.
Vom Profile.
Du Profil.
Second rank of the five heads.
A square has been added to the previous
ones, which gives the box for the
profile. In the man made, it is 5
inches
high, and
wide. . 7 inches 4 minutes.
We will call a “profile line”
a perpendicular drawn from the edge of the
forehead.
The child’s head is enclosed
in a box of the same size;
the figure shows how much less considerable is its extent
than that
of the mature man.
The punctuated contours show
that the growth of the face is greater
than that of the skull. In the
head of the mature man, the profile
line touches the edge of the upper lip, the lower lip,
and the chin; in
the child’s head the upper
lip extends beyond the line, and the chin does not touch it
.
It should be noted for the profile of
the woman that although the face is
pine, that of the male is half a short
46
2 Zoll 4 Achtel
bis 4 ” 4 ” inch, the ear should be placed at the
same distance 30 minutes or 3 inches
6 minutes
. This is what gives a
rounder shape to the female
profile than to the male.
The
protruding nose can be given one of the six divisions of the face,
which will give it the appropriate
relief in both female and
male heads.
The female nose seen
in front can be given the width of the
eye
interval 1 inch 2 minutes
the male nose. . 1 ” 4 “
the
woman’s
mouth … 1 ” 4 “
the male mouth 1 ” 6 “
The eyes of both sexes
are given the same size of 1 inch; the difference
is produced by the
stronger arch, where the eyelids are more withdrawn
, giving the eyes an
apparent size; although the eyes
of the eyes do not extend.
What makes the difference between the male and the female head
is:
1) the more
considerable width and relief of the nose;
2) the opening of the mouth which is
larger;
3) the face that is longer;
4) the lower jaw which is
wider, consequently the
neck larger.
The neck acquires the most extent by
growth; from the third year
to the completion of growth it grows
almost twice as much from
2 inches 4 minutes
to 4″4
47
while the
diameter of the skull
grows from 5 inches to 4 eighths
to 6 ” 4 “
which again shows that through
growth the extension of the
face is greater than that of the
skull.
From old age.
The same division of the face
has been retained here, and the table shows
the essential change
which age has
produced.
The flexion of the bending of the bending vertebrae
stretches the skin of the posterior side to
the ligament of the eye socket, and raises
the eyebrows; helps
to
lift the upper eyelids; hence the staring gaze of old
people.
The lack of teeth raises the
lower jaw, the mouth slit rises
and thus the ligament of the chin; the
faces are getting shorter.
The diameter of the hard parts
remains the same, namely: the skull
and the zygomatic arches.
On the other hand, the lower
jaw retracts because the masseters have decreased in
muscle-fullness.
With the lack of teeth,
the covers of the teeth, the lips,
recede, and the upper lip pulls down the tip of the
nose.
At the same time, the protrusion
of the chin arises, which transcends the
profile line, in that the lower
jaw has to rise.
With the. Slimming of the facial
muscles happens the same with
those of the neck.
48
The lack of these principles is
the cause of the fact that in so many
works of art the old head, both female and male,
is often so dubiously deformed
.
Third row:
The hands and feet.
The puss has long been adopted as a
standard ; whose length,
which can be measured exactly, is more suitable
for this purpose than the head.
The Germans and also other
nations have the
elbows (the cubits) as a measure, each
one usually having the same
length as the Eusse.
At the middle grüsse; namely, of
5 puss 6 inches for the man, but
the well-formed puss of our
inches has a length of 10 inches, and so the
elbows (ulna).
According to this ratio, the
male puss is
drawn on the plate, and so it turns out that
it has just twice the length of the
face (5 inches).
The measurements of nature
entitle us, according to the same law
, to
give the measure of the female puss, the face
of which is 4 inches 4 eighths
of the puss twice as much
.
Both show that the length of the
puss must exceed that of the head.
In the three-year-old child the ratio is
different: the head has
■” 6 inches 4 eighths
and the foot only 5 ” 4 “
and is also wider towards the
length than the full-grown puss.
49
Forty-nine
feet, 12 inches long, are seldom
found, and only in men of the
largest form.
In the works of art of the ancients one sees
this natural law closely
observed; Michel Angelo was the first
to depict the foot of Istein.
The male hand.
This is here assumed to be 7 inches long
, and so 2 inches more than the length of the
face.
The three larger fingers measure
half (3 inches, 4 eighths).
It is shown here splayed,
according to which it assumes a shape which
has caused the Italians to adopt a
measure called a
palm tree, which is 9 inches in the
largest spread.
Afterwards a thin
membrane in the inner hand was called palm arius
.
In the pigur on the board, the
point from which the
circle segments that meet the finger
joints can be
drawn. The width of these
can only be given exactly by the attachment of the 4
fingers (3 inches
2 eighths).
The female hand.
This is assumed to be 6 inches
4 eighths and is somewhat larger towards the
face than the
male. Observations of
nature confirm this assumption.
It is enclosed in a case
of 3 inches, but must not be so wide, measured over the 4
inches.
50
The child’s hand, 4 inches in length
, may be slightly
wider than half 2 inches 2 eighths
over the 4 fingers.
The ancients, and also Mohrentheil
Rafaël, observed these laws
of nature.
If
the hands are made smaller, which
is usually the case, the outstretched arms, which are supposed to be
the same size
as the whole figure, cannot reach them.
Since, moreover, the thighs are given the
greatest possible length, and the
torso is squat and short
, the arms are also formed short
; and this deviation
from the laws of nature is
exercised not only by bunglers, but
by the most vaunted living
masters of art.
One might say that they do not
have the courage to present the truth.
The second panel of heads, containing:
Four illustrations of
Greek deities and two portraits from
antiquity.
The first table has given those
reproaches which most frequently
agree with well-formed living
nature.
The same relations will also
be applicable for the most part to those forms
from antiquity which represent representations from life
.
A closer examination has
shown that the previous division is based on
1;
51
the facial formation of the g-otts is
not applicable, and that instead
of the 6 parts —
8 parts must be assumed for the same tree.
If, as has been done here,
these have been applied
to four different heads, it may be
inferred that there is a family belonging to
the Samine, whose eternal youth is not
subject to the variation
of mortals.
The rarity where this division is to be found
in a living face, gives a right to call this formation
“the ideal.”
The faces of Meleager and Appollino
are here the same length
as in the head of the man (5 inches).
Those of Niobe and Venus are less
than one-eighth of the 8 parts
of the face.
The ocular space is 3 inches 4 eighths for both
sexes; according to this,
the faces of the goddesses
appear rounder.
Since the Meleager
is depicted larger, like nature, and the Appollino
somewhat smaller, like nature, a separate scale had to
be assumed
for both.
By dividing the eyes into 8 parts, the eyes
move higher, and the space between the eyelid and
the
eyebrow becomes small.
Likewise, the slit of the mouth moves
up, the upper lip becomes shorter and
the lower jaw so much stronger.
In the male heads the
lower jaw is wide, and so is the
pals, which is 4 eighths stronger than in
the females.
52
The zygomatic arches have the
meleager 5 inches 4 eighths, and the
niobe 5 inches.
The slit of the mouth behaves to
the eyes like three to two — 1 inch
4 eighths.
This law is rarely observed
because people want to make it even more beautiful and beautiful
.
In nature, the size
of the angel is almost always found to be 1 inch, while
the slit of the mouth is often twice
this size, namely 2 inches, without
producing any indignity.
The eyes of Appollino are large
and wide open,
but their orbit is not greater, but the
space between them is therefore so much
smaller.
The eyes of the Venus Medicis are
small, the eye space the same,
which is why the space between them becomes large.
The cheekbones and skull
are very narrow, which is why this head
has been
considered unnatural. (Cheekbones 4 inches 5 eighths.)
On the p. plate,
below in the third section, is the head
of Paustina, where the extension of the
cheekbones is 5 inches 3 eighths.
Above these two heads, in the
first row, is the head of the Niobe
daughter, whose cheekbones measure 5 inches
.
In these three heads the 8 parts of the
face stand on the same lines.
The difference is nevertheless
noticeable enough, and goes down from the ideal
to the human.
The broad cheekbones, which
can be found under the old sculptural at
53
the busts of Roman women
, were created when men
of Gallic and Germanic descent were at home
there.
The concept of beauty, as given by
the Niobe heads, was first definitely
followed among the
modern painters by Guercino
and Guido Reni. The old Dutch
and German painters remained
within the boundaries of the natural, as
Faustiua shows here.
The profile of the Niobe, which is one-eighth
shorter than that of the
Mcleager, has the same distance
for the ear (4 inches 2 eighths). In the profile
of Venus it is too close (3 inches
5 eighths), in that of Paustina (3 inches
6 eighths).
The lower keel of Venus is the
shortest, and remains the hand of the
upper lip in the prolil line.
The position of these parts in the
Paustina is similar to this.
All these heads are taken in
the same eye space (3 inches, 4 eighths).
The head of Seneca has been placed on the
same table, retaining the
division of eight lines, in order to
show what deviations take place in
real nature.
The nose does not reach the fourth
line, and yet the ear tip is
below this line; this causes
the ear to stand very low.
The arch from one ear-hole
to the other over the forehead becomes all the
greater, and this is what
denotes a higher intellectual:
for through the animated
54
Beings, down to the fishes,
this arc decreases more
and more and becomes a small surface.
The slit of the mouth is twice
as large as the eye, namely 2 inches,
and is below the fifth line,
whereby the upper lip becomes longer.
In the profile it is noted how the
zygomatic arches protrude, whereby the face
becomes flat; a characteristic,
especially of the Nordic faces.
To Apollino is
appended the scale, which was used to
measure marble, which is somewhat
smaller than nature. The same applies to the
meleager the Scala, because it
is somewhat larger than nature.
With the same scale of Apollino, the
whole figure of Apollino
is given under the following plates.
There are also three more plates for the male
heads, in order to make the growth
of them perceived.
Whoever
does not agree with the doctrine of Dr. Gall, and
refuses to believe the observations
of Dr. Spurzheim, which go in minutissima
, must nevertheless give them thanks
for having assigned their eang to the much fluctuating and
uncertain physiognomy of the Lavater
.
In the same way, Peter Camper’s
observations will always be given attention
, and the following
observations on national
physiognomy will only be given as corrections
, the defects
in Camper’s observations being due to his
weakness in drawing.
55
First Plate.
The newly born child
Première planche.
L’enfant nouveau né
The child of 4 months.
Fss.
Birth………….. 16
I found most of the healthy boys
of this
size. Büffon states
that one was born of new. 1, 9
, and gives
as the cause the
prolonged carrying in the womb.
Horace Vernet gives the
same measure……… 16
and for the girl two
inches less.
Bkm)g” The measurement of newborns
can only be accurate
if the lifting beam forcibly
stretches out its
thighs and arms.
head, as has always been
assumed……— 4^
and thus the fourth part
of the whole height.
Its width here is — 3Ï
The children’s heads of the Mongols
and Negro races are
narrower, and this may be for
the reason that the
mothers give
birth to them more easily.
Loib od. This is almost round, i.e
.
lorso.
the diameter of the bippen
en face……….. — 4
the diameter in the profile — 3|
What is most remarkable is the
surprising
■ .
Kei. unanimous increase
of these measures;
56
Fss.
Hand………..— 2
elbows…….. — 3
upper arm………— 4
of the lower legs, in
profile, with
outstretched heels. . — 5
feet and elbows are
of equal length … — 3
from the abdominal insert to
the neck pit….. — 6
Several measurements which are consistent
are shown in the p. table.
The painters of the earlier centuries
show in the pictures
of the Mother of God the intention: to depict a new-born
boy; quite sufficiency
may be difficult to find
among them.
Maass. The Àchteltleile (dash) of the customs
are used as an indication; the
comparison of the measures is facilitated
and the differences more noticeable.
Case. Thus we will name
the inclusion which bounds the floor and the
crown (2 feet or 24 inches),
and encloses the tilts (5 inches or
40 eighths). This provides a quickly comparative
overview of the three
views of Vorue, from the side
and from the back. The drawings
are given as orthographically as
possible, i.e., in the manner in which building
plans are made, in order to show each
part in its whole length.
TO. Eight.
Size………… 24 —
Pis gives boys, who, with
good food, are already in the
57
ZU. Acht.
The name
Pce. Eight.
abundant Turkish increased
by 6 inches in the third
month. We have
admitted in these lessons a
middle term in growth
.
has reached half the height of the
body….. 12
extended, give a height
for the
body of….. 24 —
the outstretched arms of the
child at birth are a little
larger than the whole
stature;
the legs have been much longer
, the
hips have widened,
as have the
nipples of 2 inches 4
eighths to……. 3 \ or 28
The back is in a curved line
, which is not seen
in the child at birth
.
The ulna and the length of the foot
are equal to……. 3iJ or 30
The pro-
fil.
8 months and 12 months on a
plate.
Pce. Eight.
Size………. 26 —
For four months the child
has grown …….. 2 —
We shall find once more
, but in a lower
degree, this diminution
of the expansive virtue.
has a range of . . , . . 6 —
However, the extent of the ribs
is less, as
is
that of the nipples…… 5 —
There could always be
La Case
58
Pce. Eight.
23
or
22
individuals who had
more extensive ribs.
has passed half of the total height
.
The space from the eyebrows
to the underside of the chin
becomes larger than the
skull…………
The nolBi
hril
Face
23
22
The size of the elbow is
equal to that of the foot . .33 or 29
Sometimes at this age the
belly is extended, and the members
become larger
so that they exceed
the measurements we have just
indicated; but this
is only in children
who are nourished and healthy.
The One-Year-Old Boy.
Pce. Eight.
Size………. 28 — 12 mc>
The coasts are almost at
the extent of…….. 6 —
The top of the head has not
grown……….. 23 or 22
has grown considerably 3 i or 28 l« vi-
The profile of the skull has not gained anything
in extent…… 5Jou44
the most suitable for height
is that of four
equal parts, each of
1) from the top to the
hollow of the throat A. B.
2) from the hollow of the
throat to the
navel….. B.C.
Division
59
…… 16 —
The great
Pce. Eight.
3) from the navel to
the knee. CD.
4) from
the knee to
the sole of the foot D. E.
The testicles are
located in the middle
of …. C. and D.
, as above, mentions 3,^ or 28 Visage
to be told with the underside of
the chin.
of the whole head can be
exactly fixed to . . . .
6 has half
of it……. 3 — The hand
The interval between the breasts
, the elbow and the length
of the foot have …. 4 —
At this age the child
begins to stand upright,
and to walk, although without
balance. There are very
few children who make an exception
to the rule, and are
endowed with this strength
from the age of ten months.
Rhineland has been added to this
&»
rod
plate, especially for those
who wish to compare the
given proportions with
the human body.
Plate that shows three different ages:
the boy at 1 and a half years old, at 2 years old,
at 2 and a half years old.
Pce. Eight.
Size………. 30 — î an ot
a half
in G months it has therefore grown
by…………. 2 —
is equal to that of the child Lll caso
to 1 au; width…… 6 —
in four parts to . . . . 7 4 D.ivi’
has slightly exceeded half The name,
do the height……. 16 — b’U
60
6 —
Pcc. Eight.
is of the length of . . . 6 2 The têfl
The parts of the face and the
notch each have….. 3 1
We indicate this measure. ?
equal to show, that at
this age this equality is
still found, though rarely
.
The upper part of the arm The broj
is the double length of the
hand………… 6 —
The ulna and the foot are of equal
size………. 4 4
A punctate line drawn from the ribs Re-
■ marqw
above the chest leads straight
to the first rib. Several artists
have given such an extent to the ribs,
which are found under the breast, that it
is impossible to bring them into harmony
with the natural shape of
the Thorax.
The male child is 2 years old.
Pce. Eight
sizes………. 32 —
In 6 months it has grown by 2 —
has now expanded to . 7 — La Cas<
because the ribs have
been extended, as well as the
shoulders; The width of
the <B1112> shoulders done…….. 9 —
Vision.
The length of the body is
divided into four parts
equal to………. 8 —
The hollow of the throat a
exceeds the line B.
The width of the head and the length of the
foot at . . . 5 —
The elbow also… 5 —
is of the height of . . . 6 3 The head
The diameter of the head is the pro
……………..
6
ai.
61
Poe. Follows.
The size of the neck is 3 —
the upper part of the arm is 7 —
it contains twice the
length of the hand.
Two and a half years.
Size………. 34 —
has reached the magnitude of . 6 4 i> heads
are far from each other
…………. 4 4
of the shoulders is of….. 9 2 The ><«•-
geur
touches the lines of Box 7 — The
dimensions
The neck
has been given …. 3 4 lo neck.
This is a proportion, which
is seldom found,
on our plate is a little larger than the ulna
, which
is sometimes
found
at this age……… 5 2
extended and measured from one end The arms
of the finger to the other give
the full height, so . . 34 —
Vision.
The four lines A.B.C.D.E
. are distant from
each other……… 8 4
The different parts of the body have
regained very little in size; they have only
gained in length. The 30-month-old
child has reached half the
height of the grown man. According to the common opinion
, this measure has
hitherto been accepted for the male child
at 3 years of age.
62
The table with four ages :
The boy of 3 years and the
year of 4 years and 4 years.
TO. Eight.
s .iniir. Size….. 3 Puss or 36 —
head. The length of it has been
assumed to be the same as
the preceding one; but the parts of the
face
are larger, namely…….. 3 4
so that the top of the head mu-
ciné retains height of . . 3 —
which agrees with
nature. 6 4
Tiici- To
find these from A. to G., a little less,
such as 5 inches, is used with the … 5 —
Compass taken, in which
half an
inch must be saved on 6 parts.
Then we get the distances
from the
chin to the pit of the heart,
from the pit of the heart to
the navel,
from the navel to the middle
of the penes,
from the penes to the upper
Ivando of the
kneecap, and from there
to. under the calf.
Caso This still remains the
same, namely……. 7 —
Ribs. These are
assumed here, as even
less occupied by Plcisch.
Eyes. With regard to these, reference is
made to the first
table of the heads, where
in particular the Entfer-
63
?co. Huit.
TO. Eight.
] from
one outer
corner of the eye to the
other, as the least increasing
measure from now
on: the measure
. J. to the conditions of the
human body…………
3 —
what extent is
sometimes still found in quite
grown adults.
Head. The diameter of the same
J. ‘ – 30 months to show
–
l’enfant à 3Ü mois, pour
■ – that these differences
montrer que de telles diften
in nature take place
La Nature.
.’ tr,ul- Their width is liier . . .
The removal of the warts
can be half……
9 —
4 4
4 4
, which
reciprocal ratio up to the
complete growth
remains. This sometimes gives the
shoulders a
18 —
then the removal
of the warts can be
9 –
9 —
. This is touched, in three points
, from the inner side
of the thigh,
diflerens, savoir:
namely:
1) at the top of the upper,
2) at the knee, and
3) La Malléole interne.
3) from the inner ankle.
Ce n’est que dans l’âge mûr,
Only at the mature age
of man
touches the inner calf
– the center line. In the
64
heads.
Foot,
elbow
.
Caso.
Head.
TO. Eight.
drawing we see the same thing observed in
the offset right slice
.
Three and a half years.
Great………… Grew 37 4
in 6 months . 1 4
This will remain in width
as before……… 7 —
has also
retained the same size……… 6 4
And so the warts have
expanded…… 9 4
must be extended until
……….’. . . 2 —
This must be recorded from the floor
, from
H. to A., à……… 5 1
where A.
stands in the middle of the forehead, and the other
divisions are to be seen from the drawing
.
is long in the drawing . 5 4
on the other hand long ,……. 6 —
which, however, is hardly to be found in nature
,
since the foot is several
times equal in length to the
elbow.
The 4-year-old boy.
Size………… 39 —
regrown
in six months………. 1 4
The inclusion of which is still the
same ………… 7 —
Its size has now . . . 66
Three plates with
a larger scale give
the details of the
heads more precisely.
65
. Eight.
luneg begins here from the chin A.
in 7 lines to G. à . . . 5 2
which remains away from the floor
……. 1 —
Although the lower legs
are thus more elongated, yet half the
height stands above the
point of attachment of the pene, which
was thus taken after the living
IsTatur.
Fuss is
assumed to be a little smaller than Lina. … 5 6
Ulna itself 6 —
Star'” These still have the same
width.
9 4
This mesure a tread
on the nature,
is a little more small than Le Piod
l’ulna………… 5 6
Four and a half years.
Size 3 feet i\ inches or 40 4
the same growth in 6
months………. 1 4
Heads – The same size is retained
………. 6 6
parts from a. to G., six equal
parts à………. 6 6
according to which the figure has six
heads lengths, but
the dividing lines
do not meet any definite
points, as in the other
illustrations.
The length of the same is here
and in the preceding figures
to 1J inches or … 16
, and according to
this: shorter than in younger
shapes, which may take place in
boys, but
would raise the shoulders
too high in girls.
66
Upper
arm
closed. Eight.
can
be exactly twice
the length of the hand ……….. 8 4
do not
yet
touch the case in the drawing, but this
is likely to take
place……… 7 —
In the figure en face, the thighs are also
too long, and
are not to be followed in this respect. The profile
of the same figure gives this more correctly.
Table with two proportions :
The five and six-year-old. Boy.
TO EIGHT.
Size……… 3 feet 6 —
has
retained the same size ……….. 6 6
from A. to G. à……. 6 —
give quite
definite points, as can be seen in the drawing
.
Horace Vernet, in
his table, gives the boy
of 5 years 2 feet 8 inches
7 minutes, which
does not agree with
my observations, although
the French fnss is more
.
The bippen are likely to prevent the
containment of……
7
a little.
are only assumed
here………….. 9 –
how the figure in general has been drawn
slender,
in order to distinguish the difference with
the other boy on
it. table
, since both are according to
is different in length in
i
2
4
The two figures, one and
the other measure can be seen
in the
the coming at this age……
2
4
Arm “,
Hand.
The length of these two par-
The arm
wird yesterday………
8
4
ties will agree…….
better here than in figure
8
4 i
a hand.
6
6
The
elbow
The lower leg contains
the
leg.
two of these parts to comp-
from the base to the
The upper
line of the Scheitel bis zur Herz-
vom. The same measure is
12
—
found from the top of the head
to the pit of the stomach . . .
12
The line of the hollow of the
gorge marks at the same time
the distance from the nipples
4
2
4
2
to
……………
of which half of…..
4
2
4
2
added to the length of all
ganzen Arms…..
18
6
18
6
21
—
21
—
which makes half of all
42
—
the height at ……..
42
—
The same measure is found
on the The
profile and
plumb arms of the profile, and
on
the
back.
arm extended from the figure seen
by
behind: it is of all necessity,
let the distance of the nipples
be
marked by dots on
the back,
in the line of the hollow of the throat.
Starting from these points or
L
can measure the upper arm
!
face und der linke Ober-
straight opposite, and the top dt
1
Arm des Kückens zu
left arm of the figure seen
68
Pce. Eight.
This addition of half an inch
comes from the fact that the head
of the elbow comes out of the armhole
.
We have added to this figure
the effect of equilibrium or
weighting. Leonardo da
Vinci and after him Gérard
Lairesse made the
first observations on this
subject; but they say nothing
about the proper construction,
said mente,. and give up.
the application of theory to
mere sight. By indicating
their observations, an attempt has been made
to solve the difficult
problem of determining by
rules: the construction of weighting
, and its application
to determined
proportions.
We will follow after figures
more likely to elucidate
this theory entirely.
Its height is . . 3 feet 6
Its width of………
7
We will call the
center the point where the genitals
begin.
This designation of centre is
perfectly correct for man, because
in him this point is exactly
in the middle of his height.
We will follow here the rule, which requires
that a perpendicular
line be drawn.
69
lets
the throat pit fall into the middle of
the standing leg when the figure carries itself
on one leg.
In order to keep the playing leg (here the right one)
at rest, the centre
moves 1 inch from the vertical
line, i.e. the 42nd part of the
whole height.
On the line of the neck pit and on the
puss testicle one also carries 1 inch opposite
, and lines are drawn from
the latter points to the
centre.
The topline from the neck pit to
the center, like the dorsal vertebrae,
must be bent to the navel.
The lower line from the centre to
the puss testicle, which is here indistinct in the drawing
, indicates how
the supporting leg must lean against the inner
side as in the
stiff pyurs.
From the above curved line, the width of the body (torso)
must
be measured.
The further details of this doctrine will be
explained in more detail in
the following Pigurs.
72 months Height . . . 3 Puss 8 inches or 44
from the 5th year grown …
2
Here is the center
at half the height … 22
The case is extended to …. 8
The width of the thighs
touches this width, the ribs
are slightly retracted.
70
Inch
The upper line of the
patella may be a little longer than the . . . 12
The attachment of the penes may be found
a little less than half the
height.
Now the measurements are
equal:
from the chin to the keel,
from the keel to the navel and
from the navel to the penes….
E-5
The head has here………. 7|
The
high measure of the skull
has been accepted…….. 3»
Nature has provided an example
of this.
To make the figure more elegant
, one has only to cut off
a little from the top of the head and
add as much to the neck; then
the head will come out more from the shoulders
.
The distance between the nipples
is………….. £
5
The shoulder width is 11
which is double. This report
may be considered as
a law. We see that the width of the
epaids is
contained four times in the total height
.
The hand is big of….. 4|
The upper arm bent in the same way
, which the elbow bone sticks out
(see profile), has…….
9
so double the hand.
The length of the elbow is equal
to the length of the foot….. 6|
The extent of the eyes equal to the size of the
neck……..
3
The neck in profile a……. 3£
A quarter
of an inch could be added to the neck seen opposite.
71
ration.
rat”!,’;” The figure of the six-year-old boy standing
on one leg
is
constructed according to the same laws.
The head is turned in profile and at
a right angle, which
exceeds the power of nature
. Thus, in
general, it is to be remarked: that
the geometrical form of this
doctrine compels this kind of
representation; a sound
judgment in the application, however,
will observe the appropriate deviations
.
Since almost no
reductions have been allowed here,
it is rather surprising
that the figures set in life and
movement have retained
the
prestige of truth.
The left
arm placed in the side from the center to the
elbow ………….. 12
from the elbow to the
pit of the neck ………….. 12
Table with two proportions :
The 7 and 8 year old boys.
Zoll
uion. Size… 3 feet 9 inches or 45
grown since the 6th year 1
Up to the last year occurs here
: the delay in growth
, whereas with the 12th
year begins a still greater
extension, which is here
visibly presented, and
thus had to be assumed,
must admit the truth of
these phenomena, although they
do not always take place at
the time we have just
fixed.
So far we have not been able to make
any difference in the
head . . . -………… 7k
We will be talking about when we
talk about figures made on
a larger scale.
From the chin to the hollow of the esto
– mac, and from the pit of the stomach
to the navel there is……. 5|
which makes a
considerable difference with the figure of 6 years old.
The neck has lengthened, the chest
has widened, although the breadth
of the shoulders has not gained anything
in extent…….
This measure is less than
in the preceding figure.
The hand and the foot have grown
even though it is only
a question of visibly eighths of an
inch.
If artists find these proportions
of feet and hands
too large, the reason for this must be
sought in the attention they have given to works
of art,
and in the inattention
of nature and reality.
For most of the modern
artists have allowed themselves the
greatest deviations from the laws
of nature by representing
the feet and hands too small.
We find the right position
73
Thumb
of the man standing at the end,
tracing a line
perpendicular to the hollow of the throat,
which touches the outer
edge of the tibia.
The thickness of the body (torso). . 6 Dansie
. N , -, , drawing:
refers to the width of 7 inches
the figure in front as 3 to 4 8
The right leg raised is lengthened 13
days by the condyle of the
upper leg (femur).
From the back.
The gaucho
arm
raised.
It should be noted that the elbow
does not yet reach the top
of the head, as is the case
in middle-aged people.
The distance from the elbow to the tip
of the index finger is……… 10
and is therefore contained four and a half times
in the entire height.
The curved right arm, to be
counted from the middle line a. . . 12
from the elbow to the tip of the finger there
is…………… 11
These measurements are equal in
the mature man.
The left leg, which is moving away
from the middle line, can be
drawn according to the same re-
the right leg. You
have to adjust yourself to the line, which
touches it in the same parts
.
The weighting of the fourth Ev>.m
is shown. The right leg and the
left shoulder form the points of this
figure.
The declination of the hollow of the
neck is……….
4
The leg that carries remains in
a perpendicular line.
The distance from the hollow of the throat
74
at the navel becomes larger
by one…………… i
The punctate line between the two
points, or the line of the vertebrae,
curves much more; the angle
placed on the line indicates the slope
of the hips and the junctions of the knee
, which are parallel to it.
The slope of the profile is parallel to the slope of the
hips.
The mastoid remains in its upright position
; the ear is in the
same section, as in the standing figure
; The other divisions also remain
the same.
The left arm resting on it shows two
points for the elbow, because in
reality this part approaches
the eye and therefore appears a
little shortened. The same case takes place
for the left curved leg, which
is drawn here in its natural length
.
The male child of eight years old.
Inch
Size. . 3 feet 10 inches or 46 96 months
Since the 7th year the child
has grown from………..
1
The head retains its volume… 1\
However, the lower
jaw may extend a little beyond the line
of the chin.
On the board the neck has been marked
with …………. .
3
The space of the eyes and the size
of the neck have grown by ….. a
Three parts are of equal size
:
the distance from the chin to the pit
of the stomach………. 6
75
from the navel below the
testicles……………
6
The ribs touch the entire
square………….
8
The attachment of the penes is lower
than in the previous figure.
Nature presents this variety
, and sometimes even
greater ones.
The width of the shoulders is . 11
The body seen in profile a….. 6 L|> p»-
opposite………….
8 is therefore the ratio of 3 to 4.
The foot is the length of . . . 6j
and the ulna is a quarter of an inch
longer. For the most part of the
time these two parts are of
the same length.
The distance between the
nipples is placed on the line of the hollow
of the nape of the neck at………
5
The length of the upper
part of the arm is taken from these
points of distance and contains,
including the bend which borders 10
These points are crossed by
the punctuated line of the arched part
of the ribs.
It is built according to the
rule indicated above.
Deviation A….. ■……
1
on the other side B. and C. also 1
The perpendicular line of the middle
cuts the neck
into two equal parts, the vertebrae of which curve.
The angle placed on the line A. B. and
which determines the slope of the hips and knees
has been marked by
a punctuated line:
The Back.
La
Pondération
.
Fourth
figure.
76
There are here three measures equal
to 13′ inches, from the throat
to the middle of the height
where the belly ends;
from the punctuated line, from
the point where it intersects
the left hip to the
middle of the right knee:
from the middle of the right knee to
the base G…….. £
13
The same measurement is from the
top of the head to the pit of
the stomach.
The board at two ages:
The child nulles at nine and ten
years old.
Inch
Size. 3 feet 11 inches or 47 i
since the eighth year he has
grown from…………
1
It would not be necessary
to give
a new figure for the difference of an inch, but the va
– riety of nature offers enough
deviations to preserve the
properties and characteristics
of age, by limiting oneself to
forms, of a natural and
healthy size.
The head retains its size of . £7
but the parts of the face are
larger………. 4J
The width of the head in front
is only a……… 5|
the hollow of the throat is far from
the chin……….. 3
77
Inch
Zoll
Die drei folgenden Maasse haben
The following three measures are
gleiche Grösse:
of equal size:
vom Kinn zur Herzgrube, ^
von der Herzgrube zum Na-
from the chin to the hollow of the esto-
mac,
bel, und !•
5|
from the hollow of the stomach to
the ■ r)i
vom Nabel zum Schaam-An-
satz )
navel,
°2
from the navel to the point, where com-
ist im 8jährigen angenommen zu
5|
Die Hand ist um k grösser,
We have marked the same
distance for the 8-year-old
male child………… 5|
The hand has grown by an eighth
…………. 41
The foot is equal in size
to the elbow…….. 6J
The shoulders have…….. 11£
The distance of nipples is 5
which is in harmony with
their higher position.
The spread of a leg represented
in front and behind, causes the opposite
hip to come out. This little movement
already gives life to the whole
face.
Particular notice has been given to all
the parts which lie under a
straight line, such as the index finger in
the extended arm, the edge of the radius,
the biceps, the acromion in the hanging
arm. A few stitches in the
legs such as: the inner
ankle, the condyle of the
upper leg, the inner epithysis under the
coccyx: which is rare at
this age.
It is almost nothing more than the re<
petition of what we have said
on the occasion of the child at seven years of age.
The deviation of the hollow of the neck
3 inches. The hand of the right
arm extended is bent; the shortcut could not be
avoided here. Instead of the
78
perpendicular position of the foot that
bears, it is the line that declines by an
inch that touches the heel, as
in the right figure.
It is necessary to deviate one inch from the hollow lines
of the nape of the neck, and from the base, while that.
The angle placed on the line from the center
to the hollow of the neck gives
us the slope of the hips and that of the
knees.
The same curved line as the lines
of the dorsal
vertebrae serves as the line of the bees.
middle, to mark the width of the
body, provided, however, that
the compass declines for a few
points below the horizontal
line.
This is the case here, where the rules must Ee_
mark
be supported by talent, to
produce a figure that satisfies the
conditions of art. It is impossible
to draw by figures all the
con- circuits that nature presents to us.
This operation could only take place
for an architectonic drawing;
It would require genius, even for
this drawing, if we put it in perspective
, and if we want it to present the
required accuracy.
The ten-year-old male child.
Inch
Size…… 4 feet or 48 i20 months
in a year it has grown by . .
1
the box has widened by an inch 9
the length of the head is still
the same………. 7|
the space of the eyes has grown; he has 3|
79
the hollow of the neck is far from
the chin of………
3
from the chin to the hollow of the esto-
mac, from there to the navel, from the name
Scliaamtheilchen gleich ….
bh
bril to the genitals, he 3′
14
the lower leg has reached
die Hand ist nun lang….
5
the length of the hand has . . .
5
der Ellenbogen und Fuss . . .
71
the elbow and foot each have
7|
die Schulterbreite beträgt yesterday
12
the width of the shoulders makes . .
12
und könnte die Entfernung der
the distance between the nipples
Brustwarzen die Hälfte betra-
could be reduced to half,
gen, alsdann müssten solche
i.e.d. to 6, only etwas
tiefer zu stehen kommen;
he placed them a little lower;
5i
here they are far from ….
H
hiezu hat die lebende Natur
nature has served us as a rule.
das Muster gegeben.
Die Weite der Bippen ist hier
8
The width of the ribs is . .
8
Auch diese könnten noch brei-
This measure could be more
ter werden, alsdann müsste aber
grande, but then it would be necessary
to der Leib länger und der Knabe
that the belly was longer, and
weniger hoch gespalten breast.
that the legs were shorter
.
Nun erreicht bei nach oben ge-
Now the elbow touches the
strecktem Arme der Ellenbogen
line from the top of the head, if the
die Scheitellinie.
arm is raised.
ratio”” ^er *s* rïie Abweichung vom
The deviation of the centre, of the trough
Weighting
.
Centrum der Halsgrube und
de la nuque et de la base est
Eussboden………….
14
of…………
il
welches als Maximum anzu-
this measure can be considered
sehen ist.
as the maximum.
In der Eigur erscheinen beide
The two arms of the figure are
Arme zu klein, und kann dem
a little too short, instead of
aufgehobenen Arme statt der
9 inches we could fix the
9 Zoll gegeben werden ….
9*
Measure of the raised arm at . . . .
9|
und der gesenkte linke Arm
le bras gauche à plomb aura
kann, wie jener in die Höhe
22
gestreckte, erhalten……
22
as with his arm raised.
80
124
The plate in two proportions:
The male child at eleven and twelve
years of age.
Inch
Size. 4 feet 2 inches or 50
in a year he grew from . . 2
In the last four years
the child has grown by ■…..
Now follow four years
in which he will grow …….
3
each year.
This progress, sometimes late,
sometimes hastened for the development of
the body, varies infinitely. Nature shows
this variety for all animate beings
. We have not made
observations on the same phenomenon
in relation to plants.
There are male children who are
much older at this age, they quickly reach
their full height
; but also their growth, as to
the length of the growth, rather than
in the others.
Thumb
Box a…………
the length of the head is the
same…………. . 1\
The ulna and the foot also have £
7
the hand a………… 5|
The upper arm has double. 10i
if the breadth of the shoulders is
counted at………… 12j
The thickness of the body seen in profile
will not rise to half. . 6
As for the
lower leg, it should be noted that
the fat of the leg is do . . 3
that the place above the ankle of the
foot has…….
2
thick.
Law of 1»
nature^
Ke-
i arque^
81
Ponderation
.
This measurement of 2 inches is
found in the mature man, while
the fat of the leg extends
up to five inches. This may
be the reason why artists
rarely give the
knees and the fat of the leg
the character due to this age.
The figure having a stick as its appoint
:
The upper left arm had to be drawn in shorthand
, and we
can also see
three-quarters of the face. The measures
indicated for the other parts can be used with complete
safety.
………..
The twelve-year-old male child.
Inch
Size. . 4 feet 5 inches or 53 i44moii
in a year he has grown do . . 3
It is true that the head still has 1\
but the parts of the face are
larger, they have … . 4j-
From the hollow of the throat to the ash
, there is ………… 16
The lower leg is the same
measurement………….. 16
In the figure seen opposite, the
shoulders have gained in extent 13^
in the figure seen in profile it
is only the thighs that have
gained in width.
This is the reason why the body
seen in profile appears weak compared to
the legs.
82
Plate h. two ages:
The male child at 13 and 14 years old.
Inch
Size. 4 feet 8 inches or 56
in the last year he has
grown from…………
3
the box has widened to . 10
the length of the head has . . . 8£
the parts of the face have . . . 4|
From the chin to the center there are three
parts to………… 6£
In this way the relations are more
quickly grasped; moreover
, nature shows these
proportions; it would still be advisable to
place the hollow
of the stomach and the navel a
little below the marked
lines.
The hand has………..
6
The upper arm……. 12
The ulna and the foot are of equal
length to………. 8i
The spase between the nipples 6|
The shoulders are
twice as broad
…………. 13
The knees and the fat of the
leg are of the same size
……,……. 3£
In the figure which places the
right arm
without it serving
as a fulcrum, a
perpendicular line drawn from
the hollow of the throat would
touch the little finger of the left foot.
It was intended to show how
much the upper body can be
tilted backwards, after
its weight has been supported in part
, by the right arm a moment
before.
83
Grandeur. 4 feet 11 inches or 59
in a year he grew from . .
3
Va-
riante I.
To indicate the variety of
nature, the length
of the head has been fixed here only at…..
8
The division of the head changes;
a line passes through the two corners
of the eyes and divides this length
into two halves at . . .
4
A well-made child whom we have had
occasion to measure
has led us to mark the slit
of the legs at such
a high measure. From the beginning of
the genitals to the base there
is…………… 30|
therefore. . H
more than the mark rule;
in the sequel we shall always
follow the rule; This difference has been marked
here only to
show how one can
depart from this rule without
producing
deformed or unnatural figures.
The size of the hut is the same,
but the sides have ……. 10
The distance between the nipples has widened by half an inch 7
and the width of the shoulders
is 14
The ulna and the foot have gained half an
inch………..
9
Nevertheless, the hand is of the same
size at………..
6
and the upper arm has double
length………… 12
This is the reason why the extended arm
, starting from line
6″
84
Middle thumb
, does not reach the entire
height
of the figure, as the rule
requires.
The elbow sticks out, which makes Profit
half an inch at the top of the arm 12V
8 ……
From the tip of the elbow to the junction
of the middle finger …. 12|
The heel sticks out, which is why the
bottom of the right leg lengthens,
as the board shows. 19
We find the same measure
for the top of the leg by
continuing the line to the
outer edge of the Gluteus. . 19
The diameter of the body (torso) is 7
and above the vertebrae of
the lumbar there is only……
6
These measurements seem too small
when compared with the size of the
legs; we have given them
as they were because
nature contained them.
The greater the width of the bodies in front
and seen from behind, the more
slender and slender nature makes the
bodies in profile. This is why the
bodies, whose ribs are
constricted, have a diameter all the greater
from the breast bone to the dorsal vertebrae
. Thus, the
volume is restored.
The head, which looks upwards, makes
the occiput lean in the nape of the neck;
the neck keeps its position on the middle line
.
The extension of the right side comes from
the fact that the right arm is supported (which
raises the shoulder) and from this
Note.
Ponderation
.
85
opposite . . ‘………. 12
im Profile……….. 10
In beiden Figuren ist der Punkt
oder Ansatz des Penes genau
die halbe Höhe.
Der Kopf des Natur – Jünglings
hat an Höhe…….. ■ . . 85
that the body rests on the left leg
(which lowers
the right leg).
By placing the compass on the center
and on the hollow of the throat, and forming
the equilateral triangle of 18
inches, then the segment gives
the line of the middle of the torso and the ribs
; the rays indicate the extensions
.
It should be noted that the line of
the pit of the stomach C. must be parallel
to the line of the dimple D.
.
…………….
î;i…………
The plate has two proportions:
The fifteen-year-old and
the Apollino.
Inch
Size. 5 feet 4 inches or 64
measurements were taken on Re-
. mark.
a young man of that age.
As it only very rarely
happens that someone
grows
…………… .
5
in a year, but of
three inches, we have given
on the same plate the figure
of the Apollino, which, estimated at fifteen
years, shows exactly an increase
of………. 3
■
The width of the box is the
same for both figures:
opposite. . . ……….. 12
in profile………… 10″
In both figures the attachment
of the penes is just halfway up the
entire height.
The head of the young man,
desiccated from life, has the height of the
86
Thumb
of …………. 8|
and the parts of the face have . 5
This is the measure of the fully
developed man.
The width of the shoulders is the
same in both figures. 16
The interval between the nipples
here is only of…….. £
7
which is not half the width of
the shoulders.
The measurement of the ribs is the same
in both figures….. 11
The hand had already……. 6|
The upper arm is not quite
double…….. 13
and likewise the £10 ulna is
bigger than the foot … 10
If our measurement had 10 inches at the R<>-
c\ mark.
It would
be almost 12 feet long with all the medium-sized
feet of a trained man. The
measure of 12 inches is found
in nature only very rarely,
and then it is only in men
of a very large figure.
The lower leg of the young man
(18 inches) is no larger
than that of the Apollino, which is why
the upper leg is above
so much longer.
The joints of the knee are stronger,
the fat of the leg is less strong,
it does not reach the perpendicular
line.
It is only in man that mark.
the fat of the leg has its full extent.
The artists, in giving the same extent
to their figures, have taken as
models the statues of the Greek deities;
always it does not agree with
nature.
87
The width of the figures, seen from the
front, is almost the same; the difference
is all the more considerable
for the profile.
The joint of the knee is 5 inches, profile,
which is why the fat of the leg,
and the binder of the thigh seem
small.
The difference of 2 inches in the
length of the whole face is sufficient to
give a thin air to the young man’s
body.
Apart from the measurement above the trochanter
which gives more width to the
top of the legs of the Appolino, the thicknesses
are the same in both
models.
We have fixed at two inches, the von<\è-
points of deviation on the line of
the dimple of the genitals and the
floor. This measure is the maximum
, and it approaches what is
called the manner genre.
The Apollino.
It is impossible to determine whether the model
of this statue was formed
of a mass which, as it dried out,
became smaller, or whether it was by design
that the artist formed the statue, which was less
large than nature.
The parts of the face from the sour- «ran.
eyelashes to below the chin
are scarcely 4 inches, and by making
a meter which gives these parts 4£
inches, as the laws of nature
require, the whole figure will be
five feet two inches
high, which justifies the age fixed at fifteen
years.
88
The undulating
forms and the beautiful fullness of
all the limbs must be attributed to the ideal of beauty possessed by
the Greek artists, for
real nature takes on a different character
at this age; and several works
of the ancients are proof of this, as e.g. the Spinarius,
etc.
In addition to the leg that bears, the figure is Pona<5-
, -, i 1 ‘ ration.
still resting on the left elbow.
The distance from the hollow of the throat
here is three inches. To find the slope of the
hips, we place a
point li inch further to the right; from
this point a line is drawn in the center,
on which the angle that
marks this slope is placed.
It seems that one might be justified
in making the following objection:
As the torso inclines to the left side
it should be less
than the plumb figure. The drawing
shows that this difference is almost
imperceptible.
j
The plate of a proportion:
The seventeen-year-old adolescent.
Inch
Size…….. 5 Fuss 4
He is of the same height as
the adolescent of fifteen, which
agrees with the average height
of …… 5 Fuss 6
This quantity is generally
regarded as the average measure
; I have not succeeded in
finding in nature the suitable individuals
to fix
the proportions of 15 to 19 years.
89
Pouce
The development of
puberty offers so many varieties, that
I leave it to others to enter
into more detail on the subject.
■ Although only a
drawing from life has been given here; there is
in this example so much
harmony in the proportions
that they qualify to be
presented as a rule:
The length of the head, from
the chin to the hollow of the esto-
mac, from there to the navel, from
the navel to the point there are always 8
One could allow oneself for the
following
amplification: to give to the distance
between the nipples…….
8
shoulder-width apart twice
eight…………. 16
What was peculiar
in this example was that the
outstretched arms gave an inch
less than the whole height,
a measure which is often
greater in nature.
Ribs that were only 10
inches wide could
be…………… 11
as the trochanter.
The 8-inch measurement has often been proposed for amplification
.
If we take twice the volume
of fat from the leg, we
will still have………..
8
We have indeed proposed
to enlarge the chest, the shoulders,
and the ribs; however, by this
remark
90
Thumb
operation the characteristic of the
two ages of 17 and 19 could
be confused.
The hollow of the throat deviates by 4A pondd-
° ° ‘ ration.
and the upper body resting on
the stick of the left
hand leans as much.
The deviation of the leg that
bears on the base is … .
2
The same measurement
has been accepted
for the line of the hollow of the
throat, in order to be able to place
in it the angle which determines the slope
of the hips and knees.
The legs appear thick;
it was the same in the
model that nature has offered.
The torso appears thinner than
in the first figure; the ex-
tension on the left side may contribute to this
.
The plate of a proportion:
Man.
Inch
Average size of 5 feet
6 inches or……….. 66
Horace Vernet gives 5 feet Note.
4 inches measure of Paris, or
Royal foot.
The divisions in………
9
give almost exactly 1\ times
the length of the head, which
is in harmony with the proportions
of most ancient states
.
It has always been customary to
use the head as a measure
for the other parts
of the body; but the vault of
the skull does not allow the height of the head to be taken
exactly;
91
Pouce
also hair gets
in the way.
The foot of man gives a
more definite measure; according
to Vitruvius, it contains the sixth
part of the whole height, i.e. 11,
which corresponds sufficiently to the examples
taken from nature.
As the drawing shows, however, I found
well-made
bodies whose foot was only 10
and the elbow was then a little
more, e.g. ………… 10i
although the two lengths are
very often the same.
The hand is the length of . . . 7
and the upper arm has double
(humerus and acromion)….. 14
This is the height that Vitruvius
gives to the face, and he says that it
is contained ten times in the
height…………. 70
The following figure, that of the
Heros, will show us that this division
is perfectly correct; it cannot be
applied to the
figure of medium magnitude.
If the head of our figure were to
be contained eight times in
the whole height, it would have to
have………… 83
WhatIt corresponds to nature, which
often presents a
flattened skull.
To obtain the four divisions of 9,
we have added to the top of the head i
as shown in the figure; this is
what gives a division that
is easily followed; from the
base to the joint of the knee there
are twice 9 inches. This
Seven inches
.
92
Zoll
Thumb
aufgetragen ‘worden, und ‘be-
line touches the lower
edge rühren den untern Band der of
the patella or the joint between
Kniescheibe oder die Fuge zwi-
the thigh and the leg.
Der auf der: Tafel gestellte Text
The explanation on
giebt die Ansicht von der Har-
la planche clearly
shows monie der Maasse, welche im
the harmony of the measures, which
ausgewachsenen Manne mittle-
emerges more in man
rer Grösse mehr hervorleuch-
is of medium size than
tet, wie in jeder andern Pro-
in any other proportion.
portion.
Zu bemerken wäre hierbei die
Eemarquons encore que….. 4 hours
Zahl…………… 42l
the half of 9 inches gives the
als die Hälfte von 9 Zollen, wel-
just-measure for the volume of
the che als die Hals- und Waden-
cou and for that of the fat of
Dicke hiemit stimmt.
the leg.
Mehrere. Längen-Maasse von . . 19
It is also worth noting more
ebenfalls zu beachten.
These measures of…….. 19
Ponde- Dazu sind.die drei Abweichungs-
ratio iit
The three points of deviation of the Ponde-
Punkte der Halsgrube, der
hollow of the throat, of the
angenital
parts
Schaam und am Pussboden at and of the base are 2
genommen ………..
2
The thirty-third part of
the entire pitch could be used
Man kann, den 33sten Theil der
ganzen Höhe als das Maximum
of maximum for this deviation
Abweichung annehmen.
tion.
Der leichteren Aufzeichnung hal-
To facilitate the drawing, the profile of
the head has been placed
in a
Winkel gegen die Brust gestellt;
right angle to the chest; po-
eine Wendung, welche die wirk-
sition which is not properly
liche Natur nicht ganz erreicht.
in nature. Cependant on
Der Hals darf aber jederzeit
can always place the neck
mitten auf die senkrechte Mittel-
just in the middle of the line
linie zu stehen kommen.
perpendicular.
Die Dies ist die erste Figur, in wel-
Waden, r
Here is the first figure in the <> e>-as
eher die innere Wade die An-
which the inside of the leg fat.
Lehnlinie Berührt, uninjured in
the leg, touches the line; the age
reife Alter diese Ausdehnung
mur. produces this extension.
erst hervorbringt-
i ‘.yj
Proportion of Heroes.
Proportion the Hero.
Grösse . . . 5 Fuss 10 Zoll oder 70
Grandeur 5 feet 10 inches or 70
Die Götter-Bilder der Alten über-
The old clans their works
93
Zoll
The most colossal thumbs
do not give
more height to the figures
of their divinities. ■ We do not
wish to decide here whether nature
did not show them higher
statures, or whether
greater proportions did not
correspond to their ideas of
the ideal. What is certain
is that we find men
of this stature quite
often in our days.
Experience shows us that bodily
strength is not the necessary
consequence of a high status
; it is those of average
stature who perform the
feats of strength, which are
wonderful, such as e.g. Les
– benier, Frank and Rappo etc.etc.
By dividing the head into two equal parts
at the dividing
line, pass through the eyes.
The division for the whole height
, the easiest to grasp, is
seven times……….. 10
The box has been extended to … . 13′ c«se.
We find double 10
inches……….. 20
from H. to I., from I. to K., from K.
to H. likewise from the
lower leg to the knee L., from
the upper leg to M.
Calves at 5″ thickness
give…………. 10
The deviation here is only . 1£ Supplementation
.
This is sufficient, although we have
marked half an inch
more in the preceding
line, which is less large.
.
94
Pouce
The Except for a greater fullness of the
head. b
of the lower jaw, the dimensions
of the head remain the same with the average
size of 5 feet 6 inches.
The Proportions of the Female Figures
The Woman (vid. Fcmina).
inch
size of the same is assumed
…………. 63 \
Although the majority of women
are smaller, a lower height
cannot be assumed in
art. Placed next to
the man of medium height of 66
, the difference between . . 2|
which, in groupings,
especially in the works of
sculpture, causes a noticeable
reduction in the whole volume
to appear.
The most noticeable
differences in the relations
between men and women are :
1) the shorter face of the woman 4|
2) their narrower bippen . . 10
3) the shorter thighs.
That Maass from the floor to
the shame point……. 30
reaches the upper band of the
eye sockets………. 30
The use of the belly over
it is thus
noticeably lower than in the
man.
Fourth: is the difference in the
Bippen width………. 10
against the width of the
thigh line C………. 13
significant, in that both measures
95
OUCB
Zoll
p
“beim Manne, insbesondere bei
many ancient statues.
vielen antiken Statuen, gleich
In nature I have always
sind. In der lebenden Natur
found the coasts a little more
, fand ich die Eippen jederzeit
narrow.
etwas schmäler.
A. B. C. D. E. sind 4 leicht
A. B. C. D. E. close 4 divi-
fassliche Eintheiluugen at . . .
15
15
Vom Kinn bis Schaampuukt drei
From chin to vulva there is
8k
81
welche mit der Gesichtslänge von
H
add the length of the face to
H
die Höhe betragen von ….
30
vons will find the height of .
30
Die Intervalle der Brustwarzen
The interval between the nipples is
7
7
and the width of the shoulders . . .
15
und die Breite der Schultern .
15
Fünfter Unterschied: indem beim
Fifth difference, for the inter-
Manne diese Interval die Hälfte
valle of man’s
nipples
der Schulternbreite beträgt.
is half the width of the shoulders
.
Die Frau:
The woman:
Face — Profile — Rücken — rechter Arm
Face — profile — back — right
arm ap-
in die Seite, linker Arm gehoben ■
puyé” on the hip, left arm raised
tanzende.
dancing figure.
Zoll
Pouce
Die beiden wagerecht ausge-
The horizontally
extended arms streckten Arme geben eine glei-
give a length equal to
che Länge mit der Höhe der gan-
the total height of the figure.
Zen Figur.
Die Intervalle der Brustwarzen
7|
The interval between the nipples is
n
Die Länge der Hand……
qI
Gk
Der Ellenbogen hat eine Länge von
10
The elbow is of the length of
10
und die Länge des Fusses ist
and the length of the foot here
is
9
9
Bemer- Bei den mehrsten kleinen Frauen-
These two lengths are equal Re
–
G-estalten wird man beide Län-
in women of small stature.
Marque’
gen gleich antreffen.
» Der Ober-Arm hat das Doppelte
The upper arm has twice the size of
der Hand-Länge……..
13
the length of the hand….
13
misset aber im gebogenen Zu-
by bending the measure is
stande mehr, wenn die Ellen-
longer because the elbow
bogenspitze auslenkt. Von dieser
is out. From this point of the elbow
Spitze bis zum Ansatz der Finger
96
inches
and so the width over the
thighs cn face.
Profile. This is enclosed in the width
of………… – 9
and is reached at the breast
and the embers or vessels. ,
The base of the thigh
is more ………..
7
than the thickness of the body over
the lumbar vertebrae…….. 6j
The pit of the throat is
removed from the chin…………… 3i
to
indicate the sinking of the shoulders, which are raised in the man/
The if the raised arm of the
chick.
points of use of the cervical pit
line, it
has up to the elbow tip 14j
and the lowered arm has twice the
length.’ . . . …. . . … 29
Figure 4. The same Maas’s results in
Ponderation
. the inserted right and
raised left upper arm,
the length of which depends on the same
point…………, . 14}
Figure 5. In these
illustrations, which belong to violent
movements, an attempt has been made to show
that the art of
measurement can also occur here.
The throat pit moves away from the
point…………..
2
The widths of the body must
be excluded
from its strongly curved
dotted line. The left nipple
retains its height.
From the point to the throat pit . . 22
With this length one
obtains the point whose rays indicate the
direction of the shoulders and the direction of the shoulders and the
Figure
97
inches
of hips, etc., and which
is less
here because of the shortening……….
1
The drawing “indicates clearly
enough how the parts
deviating from the eye must
be shortened.
Ponce
The height measures are the same as
in the previous figures.
Their inclusion is still
assumed………… 125
The left arm lifted up is
from the middle line to the
elbow, and from there to the tip of the finger.
17
The same measure remains from the pit of the
neck to the
tip of the elbow when the arm is placed at the
side.
The thickness of the joints remains
the same as in the previous figure.
In the drawing
, the arms are for the most part too strong
, which would have to be
avoided in the
application.
Among the bippen, the measure
is en face …………. 8J
and in the chick…….
8, as the minimum
which is
sometimes found in nature.
Due to the growth of the
bottle, the space
between the tilts and the edge of the
pelvis becomes shorter, and so the hips seem to rise
higher.
Case.
Figure
1.
98
Venus Medicis
is straight,
The parts of the face were, as in
the case of the other female figures,
placed on the scale of 4j
height. She gave the whole figure
an upright …….. 3 feet 3
protii. Namely, of marble, the
line shows from the insertion of the left
rump to the edge of the
eye-socket, which is equal in length
of the same line in the erected
profile, seen from the
left side, 2 feet 8
The lowering of the figure gives a gradient
of
in the whole height of………..
3
The main parts of the body
in height remain the same,
namely: from the chin to the
nipples, from there to the navel and
from the navel to the point ….
If the head were the right size,
the same measure would come out for the
fourth time, in which
nature does not form such a small
head, and a lack of intellectuality
would also be connected
with it.
The four main thoilings: from
the floor to the knee, from the knee
to the point, from there under the
breast, and from the insert of the
breast to the eyebrows. 15
can be retained ; but
this makes it noticeable
that the lower legs are longer
, as in the other figures.
The
shortness of the right thigh
is particularly noticeable Vernis Métlieis
2
99
oll
Pouce
and the length of the same lower
part
ainsi que la longueur de la
thighs, which is why the
jambe, ce qui est cause que le
Knee does not lower.
Genou n’est pas assez incliné.
■ The foot here is half a
Le pied est ici d’un demi pouce
inches longer than we have taken so far an-
plus long que la mesure que nous
, namely. .
9 s
avons adoptée jusqu’à présent
H
Les
trois divisions du torso de
8|
Si
pris deux fois de la base, donnent
are raised from the floor
en profil la hauteur du jarret,
twice in profile the knees
and en face celle du genou.
throat and en face the knee.
The removal of the nipples
8
8
gives, taken twice, the
pris deux fois donne la largeur
16
16
aès’lhiV The throat pit, which in Le
creux de la gorge, qui se
profil
du
mors’ erect figure vertically
trouve sur une ligne perpendi-
marbre.
over the foot,
culaire leans over the
tip of the foot,
dans la figure droite, s’incline
55
jusqu’au de l?i de la pointe du
pied ce qui fait……..
b\
de^M^r- ^er ^üt the vertical line
La ligne perpendiculaire A. B.
Face du
marbre.
moi’fi- A. B. next to the heels of the
tombe à côté du talon de la
Standleg. Through both Nei
– jambe qui porte. Les deux in-
gungen is the gentle stride
clinaisons montrent avec justesse
of the figure correctly presented.
Le marche gracieuse de la figure.
The hand length with the comparison of the
La longueur de la main com
facial healing is large, namely
7
paré aux parties du visage est
with the foot length but correct
95
avec la longueur du pied toute-
7
9i
maximum of the woman.
Maximum de la femme.
Size… 5 feet 6 inches or
66
Grandeur 5 pieds 6 pouces ou
66
This size joins the
Cette grandeur est d’une pro-
70
portion convenable a celle du
L
70
It would therefore be a lower
on ne pourrait pas se servir
Mass in works of art where both
d’une mesure plus petite dans
genders of equal compositions
où l’on vou-
mung are to be imagined, not
three représenter les deux sexes
can be accepted.
de la même origine héroïque.
This Junonian proportion fin-
Ces proportions à la Junon se
7′
100
inches
is used in the ancient sculptures
in various
goddesses, also except Juno.
The parts of the face are
here considerably larger………
5
But the hand is not larger
than the previous one……….
7
The nipple intervals is . 8
The shoulders a little more than
double…….. . . 16£
The differences between Ulna
11″ and Euss…….. 105
Here the calf has been given £4,
and the knee joint a
little thinner………. 4J
which, however, is necessary in order to retain
the character of the
feminine; Wherefore the
four divisions are the same
, à ……………… 15i
The shoulder width here has
exactly the fourth part of the total
height, à 16.V…….. 6G
One can cite the Venus Melos
here as an example that
the ancients themselves gave
this goddess a powerful body formation
.
The woman (5 Fusa).
Height according to Horace Vernet
4 feet……………
8
‘ Parisian measure, here 5 feet or 60
The size of the head is assumed here
………. 8A
But the maximum is given to the top of the
head…….
4
According to this, the whole height
would
contain 7 times the size of the head, and the top of the
head would only be given…….. 3i
which is more common
with nature La femme (5 pieds).
Grandeur a d’après Horace
101
is correct, there would be 7i times the length of the
head……..
8
The outstretched arms give
the whole height. From
the edge of the chin to the nipple
line, from there to the navel and
from the navel to the point …. 7\
The shoulders are here slightly
lower than the
pit of the neck ………….. 21-
and have a width of . . 14
, i.e. not the fourth
part of the height.
Their inclusion is assumed
en face ………… 12
and the thighs
do not reach quite this extent.
The ribs have only…..
9
The foot
and the elbow
(ulna) as well……….
9
and the hand, as before… 6§
Its case is enclosed in 8
and relates to
the face in as far as 2 to 3 ; however, the buttocks
exceed this
inclusion by a little.
The lifted Ann, where the tip of the
elbow has reached the crown………..
12i
and from this tip to the
base of the fingers……. 12
The entire length of the
outstretched arm is…… 27
So three times the length of the
puss…………..
9
In the back, under the ribs
, is the width………… 7.V
and en face the same place. . 8
which is only intended to show how
different they are, since there are no
hard parts among them.
Pouce
102
inches
Die Jungfrau (14 years).
Size… 4 feet 5 inches or 53
heads. Its size is assumed
………….
8
and so about 65 times in the
height of the whole figure
,
case. Their inclusion is only . 10
The same
width is retained under the egg trees as the
larger figure……. 7§
The ribs have one inch less in width
…….
8
and the shoulder width measures
two inches less……. 12
Also here the measure from
the chin to the nipple line
is less than the two from
this line to the navel and from
the navel to the point.
The hand has a length of 61,
but the foot the size of 9,
which was found
in nature; However, in the application
it should have
* inches less place, since Ulna has little more
than ………….
8
backs. Here, too, less is taken under the egg than
from the front 7
EquiH- In which the throat pit from above gives way to
the vertical line 1
From this deviated
point D. to E. gives the
equilateral triangle ….
18
The rays emanating from E.
cover the shoulders, the chest,
the hips and the point. The lengths
and widths are determined as much as
possible by the compass;
a procedure that was previously
considered inapplicable.
Pouce
103
The third, fourth and fifth tables
of the heads.
Third panel.
Although the first two tables with
the divisions of the heads have an
accompanying table with the explanatory
text, there is still only
three age states depicted
in them, and while what
has been said is repeated here, this
is done in order to lead to a complete
view of the sizes of the heads
which are shown in the three tables
and serve as a supplement
to the preceding
whole figures, also
contain some
observations that stand alone.
One cannot pay
too much attention to the human head
; for although the first
problems for aspiring draughtsmen are the parts of the
human face,
and these have been practised more than other
parts of the human body,
yet in drawing
the whole body it is found that the head is
the least sufficiently represented.
The law of dividing the parts of the face from
the eyebrows to the chin
into six equals, as
shown on the table, has been
retained
from birth through all ages, as
the last three tables show: namely, to place the corners of the eyes in the first
part, the nose in
the third, and the mouth in the
fourth.
The second table of the heads, which, instead of six sections,
contains eight
104
is applicable only to ideal heads
, and the rare cases where this
division is found in living nature
do not give sufficient
reason to depart from this norm,
which agrees with real nature
. Both teach the artist to distinguish between
human and god formations, and give the most
essential differences by means of
certain
measures.
Look at the head
of the new-born and that of the tallest
man, and limit the view
to the parts of the face, namely, from
the eyebrows to below the chin.
In the case of the new-born, the measure is from
one outer corner of the eye to the
other. . . . 25 inches or 20 min.;
the length of the face is 3 minutes
less, namely, .18 “,
whereas in the tallest man
the eyes
measure 3^” or 30 “
and the length of the face G.V’od. 52 “
while the
ocular space increases U” or 10 ,,
the face grows from 18
to 32 thus. . 4f” or 38″
piping, the striking difference
in growth in height, in
comparison with the width, gives the information of the
whole system and
must be given special attention; is
also to be applied to the growth of the whole
body. It is considered unnecessary to point out the use of each
one, because the artist
will make the remark of his own accord when using and attentively
examining the figurines
.
The skull or part of the skull
must therefore be considered separately from the
face,
105
because its Waclisthum
differs from the former
in its lesser growth; for while the
parts of the face can increase fourfold, its increase can
only be assumed two and a half
times: namely, in height
; in width from 3i inches to
a maximum of 61 inches, which latter
, however, is already very rare and is only
found among Europeans.
The three plates with heads serve
as a supplement to the whole figures, in which, because of the small
scale,
the individual measurements could
not be given with
accuracy. These usually contain
only the male head, and would
require a separate representation
in order to make visible the
differences of the female head
from the fifth year onwards; for from this
age onwards such ones begin to
become noticeable.
Inches or min.
If here in the masculine
. heads
is the maximum of the length of the
face taken from
nature . . . ……… 6J- ” 52
so the same
measure should only be applied to women’s
faces on . . . 5j- ” 44
and with this it would be
difficult to
retain the character
of the feminine.
Birth. The height of the head can
double from birth to
full growth from 4i” to … 9 “72
At birth, the face
and skull have the same height 2J ” 18
After reaching full size :
106
‘ce. or
Oî “
3t”
Min.
44
28
1
4 months,
growth
.
Min.
44
28
F
of the man is finished:
i.e. when the head is
nine inches high, which
is rarely seen.
The greatest increase
in volume takes place in
4 Mon.
“
Wachs- thuni.
merklichste Vergrösserung,
und namentlich der Schä-
the first four months
of life; the skull is of
del in derselben Höhe und
Ausdehnung, wie die Ge-
the same size as the
parts of the face; this
sichtstheile, welches nach-
her nicht mehr der Fall
ist; nämlich es hat die
Ausdehnung des Schädels
en face in der Breite zu-
conformity disappears afterwards.
The extent of the skull in front
has gained in width.
in the height ….
4 })
6
5
3
genommen ………
4 ))
6
5
.
und in der Höhe . . .
j>
3
8 Mon.
In den folgenden vier Mo-
naten hat der Schädel also
im achten Monat in der
Within four months
In the eighth
month, therefore, the skull has
8 months.
Höhe um nichts zuge-
nommen;
in der Breite……
die Gesichtstheile. . . .
i
4
1
3
nothing gained for height;
for the width …..
in profile……..
the parts of the face .
1
77] »
4
1
3
1 Jahr.
Mit dem ersten Jahre haben
die Gesichtstheile von der
Geburt zugenommen . . .
un der Schädel an Höhe
im Profil……..
7
5
7
In the first year the
parts of the face have gained
and the skull for height
in profile………
7
5
7
1 year,
1% Jahr
In den folgenden sechs Mo-
naten der Schädel an Höhe
unmerklich ;
In the following six months
the skull gained only
imperceptibly for the
I1/, years.
in der Breite en face . — ” 1
und im Profil …..— ” 2
die Gesichtstheile … —,, 1
:
2 Jahr. Dieselben Gesichtstheile
wachsen in den folgenden
hauteur ;
for the width in front — ” 1
in profile………— ” 2
the parts of the face . . . — ,, 1
They grow in the
following six months, so in
2 years.
107
Fee. or Min.
the second year of . . . — ” i
J the skull in front equally
……….— ” ^
in profile ……..— ” 1
At thirty months or two and a half years
the increase is 2>/; Years.
the same, this progression
continues until the
third year.
Where the parts of the face are 3 years old.
achieved……….. 3|” 28
and the width of the skull. £5″42
the space of the eyes … 3 “24
In the following six months s1/, «ns.
no change
in the skull is noticeable; the parts
of the face have gained —” h
In the fourth year
they have grown still more, the growth
of
the skull is imperceptible.
At four years and six months we have 4% years.
notice an increase.
From the third to the ein- ‘ »ns.
fourth year has gained:
the height of the skull. . 1 ” 2
and the width……— ” 1
the face has lengthened in
the same time of …. . — ” 3
By comparing the head of the
child at birth with the
head of the child at five years of age,
Figure p. shows how
, despite an increase, the number of children at the age of five
108
so inconsiderable
, such a marked
difference has been established. This difference could not be
represented if all the
parts had grown equally
;
but here we see
that it is the small enlargement
of the eyes, with or so much
………….
that makes this difference perceptible and
brings out.
Fourth plate
begins with the sixth year
The spaces of time are
fixed here at an earlier
year, there is no
increase in a
shorter space of time;
and the mere appearance of nature
is not sufficient to
determine age.
In this year, therefore,
since the 5th. to the 6th. the
parts of the face have grown
………….— ” the
enlargement of the skull
for height is
imperceptible; the mouth is
even represented here less
large than in the figuro
of the child at five years of age, to
indicate that the measurement of
the mouth offers nothing that
announces age.
In the head of the child at
seven years old we gave
it to the mouth…….. 1},, 10
109
Zoll od
Min.
Pce. or
Min.
und die Breite der Nase auf 1J “
9
and fixed the width of the nose at 1{“
9
weil insbesondere die
becausethe nostrils on
the Nüstern sich durch das
tout s’étend avec
c
Alter ausdehnen;
age;
die Gesichtstheile sind in
the parts of the face have
einem Jahre gewachsen . — “
1
Min.
grown in a year of — “
1.
Min.
8 Jahv.
Dem Achtjährigen ist ein Zu-
The child’s head at eight years old is
8 years old.
Wachs gegeben worden von. .
für die Gesichtstheile.
1
1
for facial parts.
9 Jahr.
Dem Neunjährigen wiederum
The same increase for the –
9 years
–
10 Jahr.
Dagegen ist dem zehnten Jahre
1
fant at 9 years old………
1
In the tenth year these par-
10 years.
für diese Theile kein Zuwachs
tis remain the same. From
gegeben. Für die Höhe des
le septième à la huit année
Schädels ist vom siebenten zum
le skull a gagné en hauteur
Il
achten Jahre ein Zuwachs von
H
and in the tenth year an
in der Höhe gegeben, und im
extent in front of 5 inches or
zehnten Jahre eine Ausdehnung
de…………….
40
opposite von fünf Zoll oder . .
40
there are two outlines for the
auch ist durch zwei Umrisse
skull to mark the great
die beliebige Höhe des Schädels
variety of nature touching
angegeben, wegen der grossen
this part.
Mannigfaltigkeit dieses Theiles
in der Natur.
H Jahr.
Im eilften Jahre sind den Ge-
Eleven years old added to the par-
11 years.
sichtstheilen wieder zugefügt .
1
ties of the face it is necessary to remark-
und ist zu bemerken, wie der
quer like the upper
lip Ansatz der Oberlippe sich der
approaches the profile
line Profillinie nähert, um im aus-
to touch it when the cross-
gewachsenen Zustande ganz hin-
The sance is over.
Einzukommen.
12 “. 13
In den vier Jahren, vom zehn-
In the four years, of the
12 and 13
ten zum Vierzehnten, wächst
10 me. year to the 14th year, the vi-
years.
das Gesicht jährlich ….
1
sage grew every year from
î
und nähert sich so rascher der
and developed rapidly for
Mannbarkeit; vom dritten Jahre
to take the form which gives
it bis zum vierzehnten hat der
the age of puberty; from the 3rd.
Augenraum (3Zoll) zugenommen
2
year to the 14th year. the
eye space (3 inches) gained . . .
2
14 Jahr.
Der Mund vom sechsten zum
The Mouth from the Sixth to the
14 Years Old.’
vierzehnten Jahre (1« Zoll) um
3
fourteenth year (1| inches)
110
min.
and the neck thickness in this time 4
by the same amount
as the extent of the skull en face…..
Although these dimensions are small
, and can only be noticed in the nearest heads
with the aid of the
compass, their
marked difference will be
perceived when
the six- and
fourteen-year-olds are considered at the same time.
Min.
The fifth table
begins with the sixth year
, and thus constitutes a progress
of two years, during which
time the length of the face has
increased……….
1
and has
almost reached the size of the
adult of 5 inches or 40, just as the
diameter of the skull is 6 inches or 48
The illustration is noticeable in the actual
nature and in the boast the
approach of the lips to the
profile line.
The skull has
reached height ………….. As
the effects
of growth become more
imperceptible from this point on, and thus more
difficult to
make visible by measure, the following
illustrations have been
presented at greater
intervals of time.
20 years. The head of the twenty-year-old :
A four-year space
111
Min.
the parts of the face have reached
their full length of 5 inches or 40
The nostrils have widened,
in profile, the tip of the nose,
has more relief, as well as the back of the
nose. The frontal bone has
been arched more over the
eyes; the chin and
lower jaw have more fullness,
and the neck has gained considerably
in extent.
At thirty years old, most of these 30 years.
clues are even more sensitive
.
At forty years old, the tip of his nose is 40 years old.
begins to sink, the na-
rines rise; the
lower jaw begins to extend beyond
the line of the profile; the
upper lip touches this line, the
edge of the lower
jaw gains in volume, which makes
the double chin appear, and
the neck has gained its greatest
extent….. 4i inches or 36
After having marked the effects of
more mature age, it remains for us to make
some observations on men
who are excessively overweight.
The
face and profile are taken from the Gros-
nature as the
dividing lines mark it.
The distance between the eyes and the width of the
mouth have the same
measurement as well as the width of the nose.
The lower edge of the chin is
placed lower; in general, the
112
fullness of the fat accumulates
more around the
lower jaw; on the other hand, the part which
encloses the brain gains in extent only in so
far as the skin gains in volume
through the fat.
It is the neck in particular that gains in
extent. It is short in appearance
because the double chin has
lowered. The dimple keeps its position.
We thought these observations
necessary because several artists
have at the same time placed the organs of the senses at a greater
distance from each other,
by enlarging
the oval of the face; which is obviously
false, because the hard
parts or bones are not subject to any
extension.
Min
The three women’s heads.
Head of a woman placed under the
head of the young man at 16 years old.
The length of his face is
set at …………. 39
and the face of this feminine
head in………….. 40
The space of the eyes is larger
in the head of the woman.
2
The mouth is smaller by .
1
The upper lip is shorter
………… 1
The lower jaw is narrower
, but the neck is larger.
The woman’s nose seen in profile has
much less relief, our head
has preserved the feminine
character as the plate shows; however,
it may be admitted that this
length of the face is the maximum
of the size permitted for the
woman’s head.
113
Nature, it is true, gives examples
which
exceed this measure; but it is then also
said that such a person would look masculine.
Ue. j) the woman’s head, placed under the
man’s head of 20 years, in which
the previous proportions have been
maintained, and because of the fullness of the flesh 1 k eighth is added
to the length of
the chin, which is why the face
is 37è eighth, instead of 4|inches or 36 eighths
, and for the same reason a
lower chin and the full cheeks
still widen this measure. Both
en face
and in profile, it is visible that
this does not interfere with the difference between the male and the female.
The head of the slender woman stands
between the 30 and 40-year-old
man, and is the latter in
accordance with a tall and sloppy
figure. The elongation of the
facial oval is here achieved by the
elongation of the lower jaw,
which exceeds its other dividing line
by 2 eights]; The
finer nose, the smaller mouth, the
slimmer neck, and the narrower
lower jaw give the face its
girlish appearance.
This is taken according to the living
creative nature of a man who
has a measure . . . 5 feet 20 inches or 80 inches;
the eye space
was …. 3g ” ” 29 eighths;
the
length of the face …. 6j ” ” 52 ” the
diameter of the skull
only …….. 50 “
and its height …. 25 “This
gave him, with his
head bare, a strange appearance, and
the seemingly small circumference of the
brain-grasping part was striking.
114
. Its brother, who is 4 inches taller
(84 inches), and who is called the Eiese,
but of a weak loan
nature, has noticeably larger
: . hands, however, the
same proportions for the head.
Both confirm the proposition: that
nature is most limited in the extension of the
ocular space:
. because at birth this tree is
…… 20 eighths
larger than the
length of the face ………. 18″
and in the tallest
man the ocular space 29
, whereas the length of the face is 52,
while the former
space increases….. 9 “
the length of the face 34 increases,
from 18 to 52.
Several great masters, who
did not observe these principles,
have happened especially in theirs;
Representations made the male
heads according to a fantasy,
whereby they completely lack the
appearance of the natural,
while they thought they thereby gave
their heads an
appearance of magnificence.
Rafaël took most of the heads in his large fresco
paintings from
nature; this gives them
the character of naturalness
which appeals to everyone, and by this
means he acquired that variety which
is afterwards not to
be found in the same kingdom
in any of his successors.
His immediate successors and
pupils, such as Giulio Romano,
115
seemed to attach little importance to it,
and the same head often returns.
This, however, is more convenient, and the
imitation of individuals requires
separate and separate preceding studies
, which
must be acquired beforehand as tools of the trade before the
whole work can be carried out.
Among his predecessors one is more likely to
meet with those who observed this part
of the art, such as
Masaccio, from whose inventions
Rafaël had no scruples.
Massaccio’s works and those
of his better contemporaries have that
stamp of naturalness, which is why
most of the figures appearing
in them are considered to be the most important ones. Pictures of fellow
living. According to Rafael, less attention was
paid to this, and in the times of Luca
Giordan, Pietro di Cortona, etc.
,
there were three fixed figures in historical representations
: a man,
a woman and a child. The
youthful male heads received the
same proportions as the
females; the older ones were given a
beard; at most one still had the
head of an old man.
In this way, with the genius which
these artists really had,
they were able to produce with ease
the great ceiling paintings which are
still seen today in the palaces and churches of
Italy.
The French artists are compiled
116
drove in the same way, and almost
even more unfettered, the artists in
Germany, who had to make ceiling paintings in
churches and palaces.
même méthode; et en Allemagne les
peintres qui avaient à décorer des
édifices publics donnèrent presque avec
une plus grande licence dans cet écart.
Three panels with whole figures. Trois planches avec figures.
. Of these, two are taken from
the. and the third gives
the proportions of the Borghese
fencer, according to a geometrical
view.
The former has the inscription:
“Nature de cinq pieds onze pou-
ces de hauteur.”
The second:
■ “The conditions of the
Borghesian fencer, 6 feet.”
The third:
“Lesbian, 5 feet 6 inches tall.”
These also according to the living.
nature.
In the first of these tables it is
noted that the dimensions from the
floor to the middle of the kneecap
A.B., from there to the inguinal region
C., and from the abdominal insert to the
cervical fossa D.E., are the same, namely,
20 inches.
In most of the male antique
figures it is found that this
relationship was maintained, and so
also here with the Borghese fencer.
What makes a significant
difference between the two figures, however,
is the length of the feet; for although
the Borghese fencer is only one
inch taller in the whole height,
yet his feet are a
whole inch longer.
Repeatingly, remark how the
newer ones are more than possible in length
117
of the feet and hands have deviated from the laws
of nature, and the grosso Michel Angelo
is
not to be exempted from this, who, as this
was done with great skill,
was all the more seductive. If we take
a look at the third
tablet, “Lesbian,” we find that
his feet are the same length as
those of the man of 5 feet 11 inches,
although he is only 5′ 6″
in size. I assumed the head of the figures
to be at the height of 9 inches, although
nature for the most part
does not reach this size, and only applies to a high
upper copy.
Nor do the tallest men
have more, as can be seen here in two existing
skeletons and a living
man, which are 7 feet and more
high.
This limitation of nature for
certain parts gives in art the
means of
depicting the
differences of form, both on a reduced and
in an enlarged scale.
Now, if artists make their hands smaller
than the laws of nature
prescribe, they
would have to make their arms so much longer that
they may be stretched out and measure the whole
height, as is always the case in nature
. The thin
calves were thus found in nature.
Nor is it advisable to
imitate this deviation from good
proportions, but it
has been retained, because this is, as it
were, only a portrait-like representation, which
, moreover, is such a harmonious depiction
118
Ebenmaass shows that such
were probably allowed to be admitted here. As the
cracks are to be called small, so are
the hands, and for
a man of this height a hand
shorter than 7 inches would hardly be
to be found.
The eyes have a 3-inch tree from one
angle to the other; in
the head of the Horghesian fencer,
on the other hand, only $3 inch for this fencer,
from which one might conclude that
the fencer is a portrait.
This, which is
almost equal to the man of
5 feet 11 inches in length, as the
difference is only one inch, is,
on the other hand, very different in the breadth
and thickness of the parts. His
shoulders are less lowered. If in
the former the width of the shoulder is contained
four
times in the whole height, in the fencer this is about
3 times. In one place, with the exception of the head, both are
alike, namely,
in the thickness of the
knee joint, 4 inches.
Salvage took the figure of the
Borghese fencer in order to base his
analysis of the human body on it
, in so far as it is necessary for the
artist. Of the works of the old sculpture that have survived to us
, none
is more suitable for this purpose. Many
of these works seem to have been worked according to school
maxims, and have
something conventional, whereas, in view of the ever-prevailing
feeling of beauty,
there is a lack of what the dissection offers when
the skin is removed. The ancients
, by their customs, were in the exploration
119
the corpse, on the other hand
, they were favored by the same customs, knowing
the movement of the naked, over
us moderns.
The so-called dying
fencer has the same character of
naturalness, but there is no
movement which gives the muscles that
swelling which is
suitable for the
perception of the whole musculature.
This defect in the
ancients was especially noticed by our
famous anatomist Walter, when considering
the group of the Laocoon, and
I will only mention: his reproach
of the collarbones, the intercostales,
the serrati, the knees, and the defective
joint head of the phalanx from
the little toe to the feet.
On the other hand, it is probably the expression of
pain, from the crown of the head to
the toes, which deserves the highest
admiration at all times.
In the majority of the male figurs
of the ancients, the extent
of the ribs and that of the trochanters
is the same. In all the
men I had occasion to measure, I also found
the Eippen measure; with the
strongest men a little
less at any time.
{ The restriction which has
arisen among us
Europeans through the use of covering and winding the neck is due to
the fact that one seldom
sees a developed neck and neck
; the nature of our
footwear, however, is still more
obstructive to the
development of this part of the body, and we must therefore
120
look at the works of the ancients, or uncultivated
peoples’,
in order to learn what undisturbed
nature looks like.
Forme du corps des peuples non ci-
vilisés, pour apprendre, quelle est la
nature quand on n’arrête pas son
dé- veloppement.
The third panel:
Proportions of the lesbian.
(Tall, five feet, six inches.)
The Herculean men known
in our day, who combine bodily
forces with such a degree
of agility that they
could appear with them like actors, all had a similar
structure, and this proportion
can serve as a representative of it:
as, for example, Frank, called the Nordic
Hercules, the Aleids Mathevet,
Rappo and others.
Among the works of the ancients, the so-called
group of Hercules
Commodus agrees
with these relations. This, although not elevated to the
first Eange, has good forms
and approaches the human.
Corneille, who therefore included it in his
surveys, gives the same verdict on
the subject as may be read
in the “Methode apprendre le dessin,”
by Antoine Jombert. Beyond this
average size, the figures
seldom have forces
proportionate to the extension. This has already been proved in the power of reproduction
and intellectually, but also in
physical strength and agility
there is a lack of proportion, which
the first sight of the unusual
size suggests.
121
Of all those mentioned, Lesbian
had the least dexterity, but
he lifted a large
table with his teeth, and a load
of thirty centners with his back. The others were
at the same time equilibrists and
conjurers, and proved how the
porter was capable of performing even the more delicate tricks
. Although much
smaller, like the Borghese fencer,
the parts had an equal
extension, some, such as the base
of the arms (armpits), even greater.
In Potsdam, where the tallest men
of the country have
resided for a long time, it is well known
how unreliable it is to assume an equal
body strength of
colossal size. Of two of the
living brothers, one is 7 feet
tall, and the other 4 inches shorter,
and here this observation is more confirmed, as
too much, as may be
seen from the illustrations which
I have taken from the hand of each
of them, to
tracize nature, and here follow on Tabula tertia
(ex ungue leonem).
Larger proportions, such as those of the
Borghese fencer, are not to be
found in the monuments of the ancients.
The Farnese Hercules is only of the same size,
and so are the Colossi of
Monte Cavallo. The large vase on
which the sacrifice of Iphigenia
is depicted and surrounded by the Homeric heroes
, which seems to be from the best period
of art, has more
elegant than colossal proportions.
The Elgin Marbles do not refute this
assertion, and have taken into account the following:
122
bites, which
are in accordance with nature and occur to us every day.
If we do not
perceive an image
among the works of the ancients, which
reaches the manhood of our
present living figures, we must assume that
those peoples either saw no such
thing among themselves, or that such
a greatness exceeded the limits of their
sense of beauty and would rather excite displeasure in the image
.
Tacitus also speaks of the
astonishment of the Roman soldiers when
they
saw the great
men on German soil for the first time.
In these three tables, the
distance of the nipples is just
half the width of the shoulder;
this measure is least assumed
in the case of the sleeping faun, formerly in the
Pallaste Barbarini, now in Munich.
Since this measure is repeated so often in
nature, it can be accepted as a law
or rule.
The broad breast, which can be seen in the
Antinous of the Capitol, and
in other figures from the Roman
dominion, and which here does not accord
much with
the delicate face, must be
ascribed to a fashion which
arose at that time, and which the artists
had to conform to.
Such an exaggerated extension
of the breast and rib box,
while the narrower hips are all the
more conspicuous, is seen in the
Canova’s pugilists (pulligatures) and
other of his heroic statues. In
this, and in the
advance of the frontal margin, which is so exaggerated above, the proportions qui répondent à la
123
of these artists has found many imitators
, not only among the
weaker and insignificant artists, but
also among those otherwise skilled
, whereby such works lack
the character of the natural, which is sacrificed by the striving for a
so-called ideal.
There are so
many sources available to the artist for learning the structure of the
human body that
there is no lack of it in their works in the better
ones.
But as far as the skin is concerned, one could
say that the dissecters pulled it
off and did not bother with it any further
. It is the movement
of this magical coating, which, as
it seems, is often independent of the
underlying muscles, especially
in the face, to which the
artist has to direct his powers of
imitation, and we sometimes see in sculptures
of more recent times, which may otherwise
well be called just,
the lack of a fleshy
treatment.
The previous method of finding and
determining relations by means of measurements
has hitherto been applied only to
living nature,
which made it possible to give those
representations and to take those views
which were suitable
for this purpose, namely, precisely en face, and
so in profile. This method does not seem to be
applicable to figures in
a sitting or lying position.
124
Tabula
prima il.
tabula
Becunda.
Here, however, follow two
panels, as the results of such experiments,
after well-known sculptures of modern
and old times. If one
were to apply this to paintings from modern
times, one would be
embarrassed; for one can
go through large collections of paintings, and one will seldom meet with a
naked male or female
figure that would clearly present
the form of man.
On the other hand, the few
surviving paintings of the ancients of Korn,
Herculanum and Pompeii show that the
painters at those times probably
intended to present them as clearly
as possible to the eye.
As soon as perspective was found,
as applied mathematics was raised to a
science, and showed itself
in all its essence, it was
not only used by painters on backgrounds
, but also by sculptors
, and
with admirable success, as
Lorehzo Ghiberti, for example, applied to the doors
of the baptistery at Florence. Applied to
animated nature, without the mathematical
aid, it now seemed to the
masters a great feat,
and Vasari cites those who
first drew
the feet of their figures,
seen from the front, in shortening, instead of drawing them in full
length, as before, as if they were standing
on a sloping floor.
He quotes
from Michel Angelo those tricks of the kind which occur
in the Sistine Chapel,
and Eafaël, who would
not be inferior in boldness, set up the
same, especially in his
125
last masterpieces: “The
Transfiguration.” Certainly both artists
had seen, both from the old bas-reliefs
as well as in the paintings,
that neither the Greeks nor their
pupils
, the Romans, made such bold
abbreviations in their works of art. Liberties of this kind
arose earlier, and their
predecessors tried to depict in the bowing
of the heads the shortened
parts of the face which are thus revealed by backwards
and bends forward, which
, however, serves the benefit of expression
and can no longer
be avoided in our more recent
artistic activity; which is why we have also given in
our published Theory of Bone and
Muscles the geometrical way in which pupils are to construct these
foreshortenings, in order to
be
more confident afterwards in free hand
drawing. Now, just as
a man does not hold an object, whether it
be an instrument, a ruler, or something else
, from the eye, but
presents it to his
eye in its longest size, so our
examples are presented in lines which show each
part in all its size,
however much this is in part detrimental to the
pleasantness of the apparition.
by ceasing all liveliness and
movement. The
diversity of adult figures had
given measurements on three sheets, taken from sculptures of ancient
and modern times, and some from
nature itself.
On the first of these three panels
it is the Christ of Michel
Angelo, the Theseus of Elgin Marbles
and the one Pulligatore of Canova.
126
There is no way which would be more
suitable to indicate with certainty the size of the human
form than
this: to place the parts of the man’s face at
5 inches; according to this it was found
that the Christ had a height of 5
Euss 6 inches. The structure of
this figure is one of the finest designs
of this master, and
differs markedly from his
Christ “alla Minerva” at Com. Resting in
the womb of the mother, she seems
to be a woman of unusual
size, and this creates a
pleasing group. By
bending the head, the neck swells,
which is therefore more thick than the width of the
shoulder allows, which is twice as much
of the space between the
nipples, and
has already been previously stated
as a law, but is here confirmed.
The whole figure is divided
into two equal parts, as has already
been established, and the thickness of the
thighs and arms is in perfect
agreement. The
hands are the size prescribed by the
laws of nature;
however, this does not agree with the size
of the feet, both of which are too small,
and this fault is still more
striking because the left foot, which
floats freely in the original group,
is
almost a whole inch shorter than the right foot, which touches the pin.
the newer sculpture has produced
; for the treatment of the skin
is of a delicacy that has little
equal.
Next to it is placed upright:
the resting figure of Theseus, from
127
of the collection of Lord Elgin, which
now adorns the British Museum.
Assuming the parts of the
face again to 5 inches, the size of the
whole is 5 feet 104 inches, which
is not uncommon in our country;
but seemed sufficient by the Greeks for their heroic
figures. What
gives it its heroic character
is the strength of the limbs, the
extension of the rib box, the chest
and the shoulders. Even if one
assumes that the length of time
has destroyed its surface ; yet the conjecture that the neck was
short and thin, as
it usually has the thickness of the calves
, remains
here five inches. The
extension of the eipps (13£ inches) and
that of the hips under the pelvis are
of the same size, which is the narrowest
that may be ventured, the outer articular heads of the
femur (
trochanter) always protruding a little more
from each other than the extension
of the eipps. The feet, which are missing,
are here assumed
to be 10 inches long, which, however, is by no means
natural, and is thus paid homage to the fault of Michel
Angelo.
The third figure, the Pugillatore
of Canova, is 5 feet 9 inches in size
, and is worked in natural
size. Although,
smaller than the Theseus, the
bippenkasten has one inch more in extent: namely,
14£ inches. Over the hips
,
this figure measures H inches less than the bippen, which is why the
thighs appear like trousers. The
nipples give a
space of 115 inches, after which the shoulders
would be 23 inches wide.
128
From all these it is evident that
here the aspect prevailed to make it more beautiful
than it was beautiful, and thus a
form arose which was quite
contrary to the laws of nature,
and which passed because in our
manners the nuchal form seldom
presents itself, and the modern artists
, through the works of their masters,
gradually turn their eyes to it.
accustomed to seeing such forms and proportions
; in that it is in the nature
of young artists to regard works of art
with greater attention
than nature itself, which, of course,
often presents itself to them with many
shortcomings.
The head of this figure is drawn in profile
; a vertical line
cuts through it and shows how
much the upper edge of the eye socket
protrudes. If this profile is
natural, the forehead should remain in
the vertical line. This
exaggeration is found in the
best works of the modern masters,
both among the sculptors and among
the painters; and this is the way
in which they set their ideals, to which must be added
the knee joints and ankles
, which are too thin, and the small hands and sweets,
with which one obtains the
elegance of the forms which even
the Greeks did not attain, since
they regard the measure of nature as the law
. — Nor should it be noted of the
head of the Pngillatore
that the nose is wider than the
slit of the mouth, which makes the unnaturalness complete
.
129
In the following table there are four
ïecunda °
figures, the first
of which was
taken by Audran from an antiquity, and the other from nature
. Antiquity, which is called “la paix
des Grecs,” aroused the
suggestion that such could have been worked
according to the
Canon of Polycletus, and was probably often copied
. Where this specimen may be
located is not said: only
it
is evident from Audran’s survey that it is smaller than
nature. According to the position that can be seen
in his works of the proportions
, she may have held the
spear and in her left hand the
shield to indicate one of the
bodyguards of the king of Persia
.
The proportions of this
youthful form, in accordance
with the natural
dimensions, are exceptionally harmonious, and
remain in what has hitherto been called the
average height. The
only deviation which has been allowed here
is that of giving the
face 5 inches, because Audran
proceeded from the school custom of that time of giving the head 4 parts,
of which two were
reckoned for the length of the face and
two for the top of the head: a division which is in contradiction
with nature
and antiquity. It is already rare that
in adults the top of the head is related to
the face as 4 to 5, as will be seen in
the skulls which
appear in the second part
— of the National Physionomy.’
Usually the top of the head has a height
of 3° inches, and so the majority of the top of
9
130
grown male skull the
height of 8J inches and many female skulls
| Inches less.
In order to
give the measure quite clearly, the picturesque position,
such as Audran gives, has been avoided
here, and redrawn into ours, which
is suitable for measurement. Regardless of the
stiffness, the beauty of the
conditions can be perceived; the very
broad shoulders of 18 inches and the
strong torso of 12 inches wide, do not
behave the youth; the space between the pit of the heart and
the
navel is here greater than usual,
but agrees with many specimens of our
present-day well-formed bodies
; the hips are a little
wider than the ribs, and the
perception of proportions, because
of the harmony of numbers, is easy.
BucUoh The tall man standing next to it,
who served as a model for a while,
is depicted with all the faults, as
nature said. Its high
lower jaw makes the face half
an inch longer; the width
of the top of the head and the height of it
, however, no longer measure as in
men of medium height, and
the eyes do not occupy a larger
one; the thighs are
excessively long and the
shoulders too broad for the narrow
space between the nipples, whereby the whole
part which the artists call
“bust” appears too large on the torso.
With all these defects, the same was used for
a time with benefit as a model
. So also the hands
131
with the feet not in
agreement; for the lower legs and
feet are small, whereas the hands
are too large. A youthful abundance
of muscles, which
was transient, suited him to the opposite of
Bernard’s other model drawn next to it,
almost 4 inches smaller. The shoulders and
hips are in proper harmony in their widths
, as
are the thighs and lower legs.
Furthermore, the hands and feet here are 10 inches
long, and the hands of that tall man are
shorter by inches, just
as the left arm is raised above the head
. The
comparison of the muscular action can be
made by holding the pulligatore
of the Canova next to it, and here we see
how the ribs, gradually
decreasing, reach the cervical vertebrae,
which cannot be measured in the former.
Between the eipps and the
head of the arm above, one
process of the scapula (
processus coracoideus) must pass;
when great masters allow themselves
liberties contending against the human
skeleton, they seduce the young
artists. In several figures of
Canova the same thing is repeated, and
even more strongly than in this example given
. The elbow (ulna)
is here half an inch longer than
the foot, which lengths are usually
the same; yes, it is often found in small women
that the foot is
longer than the elbow, and as
the neck is shorter than the former, the shoulders
are lifted and are
9*
132
le coude. The collar being shorter than
in the other, the shoulders are raised and
lowered less. Seen from the front, the
hanging arm, to be taken from the epiphysis
to the wrist, decreases by half
, i.e. by five inches, it is
reduced to two and a half inches, and from
the shoulder blade to the sternum the
greatest diameter is found to be
nine inches. In the figures of
the ancients, the pubic bone had more pro-
tuberance, the belly presented a
less convex shape, and the upper
thigh was more rounded: from which it
follows that the measurement of the studs, seen
in profile, was equal to that above
mentioned; in the figure we
are talking about there is half an inch less.
In the figures of the ancients, the measurement
of the lumbar vertebrae was small
in comparison with the belly; here
it is seven and a half inches, which
makes the buttocks appear to have
more protrusion.
The young man, in spite of the small
size of his stature which does not go beyond
five feet and three inches in
height), was taken as a model because
of his musculature, which was clearly
pronounced. When he stretched out his arms,
their size gave a little more
extent than his whole height. As
is often the case in figures
of small stature,e, one cannot blame such
an imitation. The great sculptors
of our day often
fall into the opposite fault, since
in their figures the spread
of the arms, from one end
of the tips of the fingers to the other, does not reach
the total height of the body, which
comes from the fact that the torso of their figures
being very short, the arm seems to be
133
in harmony with the rest of the body.
The perpendicularly raised
arm usually lengthens the figure of a
fifth, when the body
divided into four parts is admitted. The calf
is drawn from life, but its
size is too large for a beautiful
model. The largest of the three
figures is seven times the length of its
feet, and the smallest six and a half times.
The diversity of proportions, in
each of the parts of the human body,
puts the draughtsman in a position to
give animate beings forms
comprehensible at first glance,
of all ages, of all sexes, both large
and small, whether it be the
reduced or the colossal scale. In glancing
at the small number of
figures found on this plate,
it must be admitted that we have
only touched on the immense richness of
nature here. By considering the greatest
masterpieces, enriched by a
multitude of figures, one will
soon perceive how poor and
restricted art is in its productions. Pre-
nos, e.g., the battles of Le Brun,
the great ceiling of the Palazzo Barbarini
of Pietro Cortona and one will
find everywhere the same structures which
differ from each other only in their attitude
and the point of view from which they are
placed. Granting that the figure
of King Porus is larger and that
of Alexander smaller than the rest
of the figures, all the others are
so similar that one would be
tempted to believe that Le Brun used
one and the same model. In
the paintings of Pietro Cortona there is
a man, a woman, and a child
, all three of whom are of the same kind
134
structure, which is repeated in the
end. The great Michelangelo
himself is not exempt from this defect,
for in his ceilings and his Last Judgement
in the Sistine
Chapel there is very little variety. This is what
may be called the poverty of art,
compared with the astonishing richness
offered by nature, and even with what
is presented to us in the artistic
works of the Greeks, for example the group
of Menelaus and Patroclus, that of Apollon
and the god Pan, etc. In the
works of Rafael, e.g.,
in the Disputa, the Heliodorus, the Bolsena
Miracle, and others, we see
a real richness. His
beloved disciple, Julius Romanus, abandoned the
footsteps of his master and entered into those
of Michelangelo, and the painting representing
the fall of the Titans was a favourite subject for
him, because the latter
being brothers, it was open
to him to give them all a certain family resemblance
.
It is right that we should mention
here the Dominican, in view of the great
variety which reigns in his fresco paintings
at Grotta ferrata. No doubt
it was easy for the masters of the times
posterior to cover large canvases
with figures, such as Ciro Ferri,
Luca Giordano and others who hardly
thought of varying the proportions
of their figures.
If in the rich compositions just mentioned,
and which are
executed with admirable ease,
the lack of variety has been
demonstrated, it will be agreed that there is still
a vast field to be traversed in the
immense riches of nature, which it is necessary to
135
must recognize the characteristic
as a general law, taking
the beautiful as its guide; but one must be
a master in order to fulfil these conditions,
because it is necessary to avoid
giving in to caricature.
The dissertation on the proportions
of the human body ends with the tabula
tertia. We hope that other
artists will fill in the gaps and
rectify the errors that may be
found in this book.
On this plate is found the scale
on which we have measured the
bodies, and by means of which everyone
can check our observations and
compare them with nature.
To show into what errors
the artist can fall if he has false
principles, and if sight alone serves as
a guide, we have traced some
heads from known prints.
Two were copied from Audran who
had made them after Le Sueur. These
are two portraits of the three judges.
Although they are seated, it is seen that
they are tall men,
and even if they were of the heads
of small men, whose
faces are sometimes short, it would be
almost impossible that the spanning of
the eyes should be so great, and if the sockets
of the eye occupy so much space, where
would they be found for the jaws
and the bones of the cheekbone? These
proportions belong at most
136
in the case of children’s heads, but
here there
is nothing left but to see the intention that the artist wanted
to make a man’s head. The
two heads drawn next to it,
taken from one of the newest (Lange) and
one of the oldest painters (Giotto), are intended only to make the
remark vivid,
and both have no other
merit than that they denote the character of the
masculine. The heads below
are taken from the well-known
Batailles d’Alexandre, engraved by Audran
. The individual
parts of the face, as eyes, but especially
also nose and mouth, are
too
large in the assumed facial oval. In order to make what has been said meaningful to the
eye, the other
head A. has been drawn next to the
head A., which is calculated, where the individual parts of the
face have the
natural size. The head of B.,
of the fleeing noble Persian,
is also accompanied by a similar one,
inscribed B., in order to indicate a possible
construction of it.
This is supposed to represent a Persian and the head
C. a rough barbarian;
the latter is also repeated
here, marked C. It would
have been obligatory in this task to designate
the national character
in the features, as was retained in the case of Colonna Trajana
, and where,
apart from the clothing, the heads of the
Dacians are well
distinguished from those of the Kömer. The head of D. is drawn through from
that of King Porus and, according to the excessive size
of the body, should have an elongated
oval
face; Such a thing, however
137
a repetition of the same statement
, and the attached head D. is attached here as
a clear indication of this remark
. Reference is made here
only to the engraving, because it is quite possible that
the originals of two such great
masters as Le Sueur and Le Brun do not have
these deviations from the dimensions
of nature in such a high degree
.
One could give many
more examples of Italian and
other nations; but this
will suffice to show how this
mode of representing
the human head has been
retained down to our own times; and here a
head is added, engraved after a sheet by
Bichomme, in which the painter
Guerin has represented Pyrrhus, son of Achilles,
and the proportions at
most to a boy of twelve years
would have to be adapted. There is a
succession of drawn portraits,
of Holbein; in these the male
and female are closely
observed at all times. But the
historium painters seldom consider it necessary to abstract begels from
this, which is why their
old women’s heads could often just as well
represent men’s heads.
. On the same panel we see three
figures which are
measured according to life, and the contrast
set up in them does not yet give the
extreme extremes found in nature, since the dwarf and the pintuck form are not
yet
present here.
The first of these figures, the
Swiss woman, had only a height of
133
6feet 3 inches; in the printed
description 4 inches were given,
and her weight, 330 pounds, was not
an opportunity to be examined. Her
corpulence “consisted of bone and
muscle expansion, and her hands
rather dry, which, she said,
was due to former hard work.
The same description says that she was
of a pleasant facial formation, which
was confirmed en face, but was less true in the profile
. The
head is here indicated according to the dimensions indicated by
the compass, and
here we see the greatest possible
extension of the tree, which occurs from one
corner of the eye to the other.
As in some women’s heads of
medium size this tree is found to be three
and a half inches long, the difference
is only a quarter
of an inch, although the face parts are
2 inches longer.
It is rare to find
a skull whose eye-sockets
are more than 4 inches, and how many
errors have been made
against this law of nature has just
been shown in a few examples. Here the length
of the parts of the face arises especially through
the high lower jaw, and it
is remarkable how the female
character nevertheless remains quite distinct.
If one compares the female head
and the hand belonging to it, of medium
size, with the
head and hand of the Swiss woman, one can
imagine what an impressive
sight she aroused.
There were still larger women’s
139
rooms on display; but these
were so poorly
equipped by Anmutli that they have not been
given here
as examples. The description of this
sister-in-law further says that she is of gentle
character and
endowed with natural wit, with which the conformation of her
skull agrees, and in profile
far surpasses that of the great man
, who possessed little of these
qualities either. When
the latter showed the head uncovered,
the proportion of the
brain-grasping part, in comparison with
the parts of the face, was striking, as the
profile shows.
The brother of this man, who
serves as a wingman in the Grenadier
Guard at Potsdam, is four
inches taller, but of such
physical weakness that to keep himself
upright
for 5 minutes is exhausting for him. The hands of these two brothers
I have drawn side by side on a reduced
scale, where
it is found that that of the aforementioned
lliesen is an inch longer than that
of Grenadier Theodor Licht. I had both
hands placed on a sheet of paper
and wrapped them with a
pen.
Of the same length and at the same time
of the most vigorous nature
is the hand of a
man of the Imperial Guard of St.
Petersburg. This was shaped into nature
and brought here; —
it may be assumed that this
man may also
have a height of 7 feet. Rarely do these tall figures
have the proportionate
strength of body, and it soon becomes known,
140
if some of them excel in
this.
I have drawn
the head and hand of the middle
grosso, in order to make the colossal nature of it
visible to the first glance
.
The mere glance is scarcely sufficient to
notice the difference in sizes that
exists between the female
and male hands of medium size; — from which it follows
that the aid of measuring with the
compass is not so unnecessary for the drawing artist
as is
usually claimed.
The very small man between the
two large figures cannot,
however, be counted among the dwarfs
, and
similar specimens are to be found in every large city.
What is remarkable is that among
these are those whose
brain-comprehending part has an extension that often exceeds
the
heads of the greatest men.
Much more could be
taught here; however, during the long processing
many experiences were
made, which made visible to the author
the defects which
occurred, and which could only be
remedied by
a redrawing; — but it exceeds the
forces still available. All that had hitherto
existed
beyond the circumstances was not united in a whole and
was confined to a few ages;
still less — that which concerns growth
and sex.
141
What has been given allows us to see
what gaps still need to be filled,
and this is already
a step forward in a teaching; therefore it may be
assumed that there will be younger and stronger
artists who
have the inclination to instruct themselves and others
. These may then
furnish the corrections and additions
which would give some
completeness to this immeasurable
subject.
The many measurements of heads gave
an insight into the imperfection
of those works which
contained observations
and drawings of them; and is probably Peter Camper’s
treatise on National Physiology
, the real reason for collecting contributions
to it for a long period of years,
with the intention of giving a survey
of the formation of the noblest part
of our body as it
appears
on the surface of the globe. This survey is to be regarded as
a continuation of the doctrine of the relations of the
whole
body.
141
What has been given makes it possible to see
what gaps still need to be filled,
and this is already
progress in a doctrine; therefore it may be
assumed that there will be younger and stronger
artists who
will have the inclination to teach sicli and others
. These may then
furnish the corrections and additions
which would give some
completeness to this immeasurable
subject.
The many measurements of heads gave
an insight into the imperfection
of those works which
contained observations
and drawings of them; and is probably Peter Camper’s
treatise on national physiology
, the real reason for collecting contributions to it
for a long series of years,
with the intention of giving an overview
of the formation of the noblest part
of our body as it
appears
on the surface of the globe. This survey is to be regarded as
a portrait of the doctrine of the relations of the
whole
body.
Johann Gottfried Schadow – Lehre von den Knochen und Muskeln von den Verhaeltnissen des Menschlichen Koerpers – Johann Gottfried Schadow lesson drawings
Schiller’s statement — “Das Schöne ist die geistige Erscheinung des Sinnlichen” (“The beautiful is the spiritual appearance of the sensual”) — is a profound synthesis of Enlightenment and Idealist aesthetics.
“Erste Tafel” (First Table) in German and “Première Table” in French.
Titles of Sovereigns and Princes
- The Emperor of Austria
- The King of Prussia
- The King of Bavaria
- The King of Saxony
- The King of Württemberg
- The King of Hanover
- The King of the Netherlands
- The King of Belgium
- The King of Denmark
- The King of Sweden and Norway
- The King of Portugal
- The King of Spain
- The King of Sardinia
- The King of Naples
- The Pope
- The Sultan
- The Czar of Russia
- The President of the French Republic
- The President of the Swiss Confederation
Titles of Princes
- Prince of Baden
- Prince of Hesse
- Prince of Nassau
- Prince of Reuss
- Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe
- Prince of Schwarzburg
- Prince of Waldeck
- Prince of Lippe
- Prince of Liechtenstein
- Prince of Monaco
- Prince of Montenegro
- Prince of Serbia
- Prince of Bulgaria
- Prince of Romania
- Prince of Greece
Literal Translation (Zweite Tafel – “Second Table”)
Berlin, in October 1829. — S. Schwabe
(Note: Each row appears to describe a type of mineral or crystal, with observations on form, color, and other properties. I’ll begin with the first few entries and continue in batches.)
1. First Row (German):
“Ein prismatischer Körper, dessen Basis ein gleichseitiges Dreieck ist, mit stumpfen Kanten, durchsichtig, von bläulicher Farbe.”
Translation:
A prismatic body, whose base is an equilateral triangle, with blunt edges, transparent, of bluish color.
2. Second Row:
“Ein Körper von sechsseitiger Gestalt, mit pyramidalen Enden, klar, von gelblichem Glanz.”
A body of hexagonal shape, with pyramidal ends, clear, of yellowish sheen.
3. Third Row:
“Ein rhomboedrischer Körper, dessen Flächen stark glänzen, von rötlicher Farbe, undurchsichtig.”
A rhombohedral body, whose surfaces shine strongly, of reddish color, opaque.
4. Fourth Row:
“Ein Körper mit unregelmäßiger Gestalt, rauher Oberfläche, grau, mit metallischem Glanz.”
A body with irregular shape, rough surface, gray, with metallic luster.
Modernized Translation (Clarified and Updated)
1. Prismatic crystal with triangular base
A transparent crystal shaped like a prism with an equilateral triangle base. It has rounded edges and a faint bluish tint.
2. Hexagonal crystal with pointed ends
A clear mineral with six-sided geometry and pyramid-like terminations. It exhibits a soft yellow glow.
3. Rhombohedral opaque crystal
A reddish, opaque crystal with rhombohedral symmetry and highly reflective surfaces.
4. Irregular metallic mineral
A gray mineral with a rough, uneven shape and a metallic sheen.
Literal Translation (continued)
5. Fifth Row (German):
“Ein Körper von kugeliger Gestalt, mit glatter Oberfläche, durchscheinend, von grünlicher Farbe.”
A body of spherical shape, with smooth surface, translucent, of greenish color.
6. Sixth Row:
“Ein Körper, dessen Gestalt einem Doppelkegel ähnelt, mit stumpfen Spitzen, milchig weiß, undurchsichtig.”
A body whose shape resembles a double cone, with blunt tips, milky white, opaque.
7. Seventh Row:
“Ein Körper mit flacher, scheibenartiger Gestalt, glänzend, von bläulichgrauer Farbe.”
A body with flat, disc-like shape, shiny, of bluish-gray color.
8. Eighth Row:
“Ein Körper von unregelmäßiger Gestalt, mit eingesprengten Kristallen, dunkelbraun, mit glasartigem Glanz.”
A body of irregular shape, with embedded crystals, dark brown, with glass-like luster.
9. Ninth Row:
“Ein Körper mit nadelförmigen Auswüchsen, spröde, von schwarzer Farbe.”
A body with needle-shaped protrusions, brittle, of black color.
10. Tenth Row:
“Ein Körper, dessen Oberfläche mit kleinen Höhlungen versehen ist, rauh, von gelblicher Farbe.”
A body whose surface is furnished with small cavities, rough, of yellowish color.
Modernized Translation (continued)
5. Green translucent sphere
A smooth, greenish, translucent mineral shaped like a sphere.
6. Milky double-cone crystal
A white, opaque mineral resembling a double cone with rounded ends.
7. Bluish-gray disc-shaped crystal
A flat, disc-like crystal with a shiny surface and bluish-gray hue.
8. Dark brown mineral with embedded crystals
An irregularly shaped mineral containing embedded crystals, dark brown with a glassy shine.
9. Black needle-like brittle crystal
A brittle mineral with needle-shaped extensions, black in color.
10. Yellow rough mineral with pitted surface
A rough-textured mineral with small surface cavities and a yellowish tone.
Literal Translation (Final Entries)
11. Eleventh Row (German):
“Ein Körper mit faseriger Struktur, seidenglänzend, von weißlicher Farbe.”
A body with fibrous structure, silky sheen, of whitish color.
12. Twelfth Row:
“Ein Körper von blätteriger Zusammensetzung, leicht zerbrechlich, grünlichgrau.”
A body of leafy composition, easily breakable, greenish-gray.
13. Thirteenth Row:
“Ein Körper mit körniger Oberfläche, hart, von brauner Farbe.”
A body with granular surface, hard, of brown color.
14. Fourteenth Row:
“Ein Körper, dessen Gestalt einem Stern ähnelt, glänzend, von silberweißer Farbe.”
A body whose shape resembles a star, shiny, of silver-white color.
15. Fifteenth Row:
“Ein Körper mit schuppiger Oberfläche, biegsam, von goldgelber Farbe.”
A body with scaly surface, flexible, of golden-yellow color.
Modernized Translation (Final Entries)
11. Whitish fibrous mineral with silky luster
A whitish mineral with a fibrous texture and a silky shine.
12. Greenish-gray flaky mineral
A fragile mineral with a leaf-like, layered structure and a greenish-gray hue.
13. Brown granular mineral
A hard mineral with a coarse, grainy surface and a brown coloration.
14. Silver-white star-shaped crystal
A shiny crystal shaped like a star, with a bright silver-white appearance.
15. Golden-yellow flexible mineral with scales
A bendable mineral with a scaly surface and a golden-yellow tone.
Comparative Table: German, Literal, and Modernized Versions
Here’s the continuation of the German entries from the “Zweite Tafel”, followed by a comparative table showing the original German, a literal English translation, and a modernized version for clarity.
🧾 Literal Translation (Final Entries)
📊 Comparative Table: German, Literal, and Modernized Versions
| German Original | Literal Translation | Modernized Translation |
| Ein Körper mit faseriger Struktur, seidenglänzend, von weißlicher Farbe. | A body with fibrous structure, silky sheen, of whitish color. | Whitish fibrous mineral with silky luster |
| Ein Körper von blätteriger Zusammensetzung, leicht zerbrechlich, grünlichgrau. | A body of leafy composition, easily breakable, greenish-gray. | Greenish-gray flaky mineral |
| Ein Körper mit körniger Oberfläche, hart, von brauner Farbe. | A body with granular surface, hard, of brown color. | Brown granular mineral |
| Ein Körper, dessen Gestalt einem Stern ähnelt, glänzend, von silberweißer Farbe. | A body whose shape resembles a star, shiny, of silver-white color. | Silver-white star-shaped crystal |
| Ein Körper mit schuppiger Oberfläche, biegsam, von goldgelber Farbe. | A body with scaly surface, flexible, of golden-yellow color. | Golden-yellow flexible mineral with scales |
Johann Gottfried Schadow – Lehre von den Knochen und Muskeln von den Verhaeltnissen des Menschlichen Koerpers 2. These Johann Gottfried Schadow lesson drawings demonstrate foreshortening rules of proportion that proportions are interrelated and constant, remain true to the actual measured elements and not distorted contradicting interrelated scale as would be the case with perspective from angled viewpoints.
Johann Gottfried Schadow – Lehre von den Knochen und Muskeln von den Verhaeltnissen des Menschlichen Koerpers 2. These Johann Gottfried Schadow lesson drawings demonstrate foreshortening rules of proportion that proportions are interrelated and constant, remain true to the actual measured elements and not distorted contradicting interrelated scale as would be the case with perspective from angled viewpoints.
Here’s the English translation of the German foreword text:
Page #1.
Foreword
When Gottfried Schadow, the founder of a new era in modern sculpture, published in 1830 his “Doctrine of Bones and Muscles,” illustrated across thirty plates—covering the proportions of the human body and the improvements he later introduced for a class under his direction at the Berlin Academy of Arts—he was deeply engaged with the central problem of sculpture. Chiefly, he addressed the question of whether sculpture could be elevated by the intended purpose, for which a second perspective was introduced as a model. The answers to these questions were provided with the publication of his lectures, which became a hallmark of the century’s understanding. Schadow believed that his plates held value not only for the Berlin Academy of Arts but for sculpture as a whole. These plates offered a new perspective on sculpture that would later emerge as a distinct artistic direction.
With a calm gaze, Schadow recognized that the traditional method of sculpture—adhering strictly to nature—was no longer sufficient. He saw the necessity of grasping nature not only through its outward appearance but also by understanding its internal laws. His aim was to place sculpture on a scientific foundation and thereby guide it in a new direction. The plates he created are not only teaching tools for the academy’s students but also documents of art history. They illustrate the evolution of sculpture from external observation to internal insight.
With these plates, Schadow created a work whose significance extends far beyond the boundaries of the Berlin Academy of Arts. It remains a work of great importance even today and holds its place in the history of art. The plates express his artistic and scientific understanding and point the way forward for the future of sculpture.
The Editors
Page #2.
In the sections relating to muscular activity, since the designer deals only with the external appearance of the human being and works with the eye and forms, we believed we could limit ourselves to sketching the muscles and their activity.
It is different with the work of the progressivist—one who aims to improve and perfect the human body, who sees himself as an ideal designer, as we wish to call him. We will see that he must concern himself more precisely with the mechanical function of the body and its limbs.
Muscular activity, which we consider the cause of movement expressed through the shortening of any wire-like structure, is in fact the shortening of such a structure located between two points of the human body.
Therefore, we must structure our entire work in relation to the individual limbs strictly according to muscular activity.
The study of bones is structured into seven limbs:
- The skull
- The neck
- The torso
- The arm
- The hand
- The leg
- The foot
The four parts of the hand are:
- The shoulder
- The upper arm
- The forearm
- The hand
The four parts of the leg are:
- The hip
- The thigh
- The lower leg
- The foot
Muscles act on the various limbs so precisely and delicately that we must classify them not only by their effect on the limbs but also by their effect on the individual parts of the limbs.
Therefore, we will classify the muscles according to their effect on the individual parts of the limbs.
The muscles of the arm are:
- Shoulder muscles
- Upper arm muscles
- Forearm muscles
- Hand muscles
The muscles of the leg are:
- Hip muscles
- Thigh muscles
- Lower leg muscles
- Foot muscles
The muscles of the torso are:
- Back muscles
- Chest muscles
- Abdominal muscles
The muscles of the neck are:
- Neck muscles
- Larynx muscles
- Throat muscles
The muscles of the skull are:
- Forehead muscles
- Nose muscles
- Eye muscles
- Cheek muscles
- Mouth muscles
- Ear muscles
The muscles of the skull act so precisely and delicately on its various parts that we must classify them not only by their effect on the entire skull but also by their effect on its individual parts.
Therefore, we will classify the muscles of the skull according to their effect on its individual parts.
The muscles of the forehead are:
- Upper forehead muscles
- Lower forehead muscles
The muscles of the nose are:
- Bridge of the nose muscles
- Nostril muscles
The muscles of the eyes are:
- Upper eyelid muscles
- Lower eyelid muscles
The muscles of the cheeks are:
- Upper cheek muscles
- Lower cheek muscles
The muscles of the mouth are:
- Upper lip muscles
- Lower lip muscles
The muscles of the ears are:
- Upper ear muscles
- Lower ear muscles
The muscles of the skull act so precisely and delicately on its various parts that we must classify them not only by their effect on the entire skull but also by their effect on its individual parts.
Therefore, we will classify the muscles of the skull according to their effect on its individual parts.
Publications of the wanderings of the spirit, the life of the learned, the essence of the beautiful, the influence of the Orient on the Occident, the school of Athens and the school of Alexandria (as in the case of the Romans).
The Hellenism of the learned and the life of the learned. Their influence on the formation of the Roman spirit (e.g., the art of rhetoric). John Chamberlain London type in the Romanesque (Gothic) period.
- Egyptian figure, priesthood.
- Greek figure, priesthood.
- Roman figure, priesthood.
In these figures, the music prevailing in Asia is expressed, which is the music of the priesthood.
The music of the priesthood is the oldest music.
The music of the priesthood is the music of the East.
The music of the priesthood is the music of the Orient.
The life of the learned, the essence of the beautiful, is expressed through the depiction of these figures and through the representation of the music of the priesthood.
The music of the priesthood is the music of the Orient.
It appears the text is highly repetitive and possibly symbolic or ritualistic in nature. If you’d like, I can help interpret its meaning or context.
This text explores a philosophical idea that equates music with play, suggesting a deep metaphysical or aesthetic connection between the two.
The passage is dense and abstract, here’s a breakdown of its key themes and possible interpretations:
🎼 Core Concept: Music as Play
The repeated phrase “Die Idee der Musik ist das Spiel. Die Idee des Spiels ist die Musik.” (“The idea of music is play. The idea of play is music.”) expresses a circular identity between music and play. This isn’t just poetic repetition—it reflects a philosophical stance:
- Music is not merely sound or entertainment, but a form of play—a free, imaginative, and expressive activity.
- Play is elevated to a metaphysical principle, embodying creativity, spontaneity, and aesthetic experience—qualities intrinsic to music.
This idea resonates with thinkers like Friedrich Schiller, who in his Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man argued that play is the essence of human freedom and beauty. It also echoes Kant, who saw music as a “play of sensations,” and Schopenhauer, who viewed music as a direct expression of the will.
🧠 Philosophical and Cultural References
The text also references:
- Lessing’s aesthetics: Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was a key figure in German Enlightenment thought. His Laocoön explored the boundaries between visual and literary arts, and his ideas shaped modern aesthetics.
- Stuart John Chamberlain: A controversial figure associated with racial theories and cultural criticism in the early 20th century. His mention may signal a critique or historical framing of aesthetic ideologies.
- Indian music: The passage claims that Indian music uniquely expresses the “idea of music,” implying it embodies pure, philosophical play. This could be referencing its spiritual, improvisational, and modal nature, which contrasts with Western formalism.
🎭 Theatrical Archetypes
The list of figures—Komischer Spieler (comic player), tragischer Spieler (tragic player), dramatischer Spieler (dramatic player)—suggests a typology of artistic expression:
- These “players” may represent modes of engaging with art or life, each embodying a different emotional or aesthetic stance.
- The idea of “Spieler” (player) reinforces the central metaphor of life and art as play.
🌀 Repetition as Technique
The obsessive repetition of the music-play identity serves multiple purposes:
- Meditative rhythm: It mimics a mantra, reinforcing the unity of the concepts.
- Philosophical insistence: It suggests that this idea is not just a metaphor but a foundational truth.
- Aesthetic form: The repetition itself becomes a kind of music—a textual performance of the idea.
🏛️ Broader Implications
This text seems to be part of a larger philosophical or aesthetic treatise, possibly influenced by German Idealism, Romanticism. It’s not a conventional argument but a poetic-philosophical meditation.
In essence, it proposes that music and play are not just related—they are ontologically identical. This challenges us to rethink both as expressions of freedom, creativity, and the human spirit.
🎭 Friedrich Schiller – Play as the Essence of Humanity
- In his Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Man (1795), Schiller argues that play is the highest expression of human freedom.
- He writes: “Man only plays when he is in the full sense of the word a human being, and he is only fully a human being when he plays.”
- For Schiller, aesthetic experience (including music) is a form of play that reconciles reason and emotion, duty and desire.
🎶 Arthur Schopenhauer – Music as Will and Representation
- In The World as Will and Representation (1818), Schopenhauer claims music is a direct expression of the metaphysical will.
- Unlike other arts, music doesn’t represent phenomena—it is the inner essence of reality.
- This aligns with the idea that music is a pure form of play, unbound by representation, expressing life’s dynamic flow.
🧠 Immanuel Kant – Music as a Play of Sensations
- Kant, in his Critique of Judgment (1790), sees music as a “free play of imagination and understanding.”
- He considers music the most abstract of the arts, valued for its form rather than content, making it a playful aesthetic experience.
Summary Table
| Philosopher | View on Music and Play |
| Schiller | Play is human essence; music is aesthetic play |
| Schopenhauer | Music expresses metaphysical will; pure play of reality |
| Kant | Music is a free play of imagination and sensation |
Pg. #4.
…in profile and drawn from reference, where the doctrine of relationships, combined with the doctrine of proportion, possesses its own clarity. Again, the aim is not to teach a fixed proportion, but to derive from the concept a guiding principle for figure in every coloration.
We have emphasized—and left to further work—the task of specifying the various methods by which the relationships of heads, limbs, forms, and masses are represented and expressed in movement. But we have pointed out that the doctrine of beauty is a different doctrine than that of nature. John Cousin and Peter Paul Rubens—both taught beauty.
This, in our constructive conception, constitutes the prerequisites of this method, the foundations of the doctrine. Beauty is expressed through forms and masses, through relationships and through movement.
We have endeavored to outline the method and attempted to fully introduce it into the silhouette lines from a perspective view.
Berlin, April 1836
Dr. G. Schadow
Director of the Royal Academy of the Arts
F. Berger
Professor
This text reflects Johann Gottfried Schadow’s foundational role in shaping 19th-century German art theory, emphasizing proportion, movement, and ideal beauty as central to artistic education.
Johann Gottfried Schadow (1764–1850) was a pivotal figure in German neoclassical sculpture and art education. As director of the Prussian Royal Academy of Arts in Berlin, he was deeply invested in formalizing artistic principles that balanced classical ideals with natural observation. The 1836 statement I shared—co-signed by Schadow and Professor F. Berger—captures a moment in which art theory was transitioning from rigid classical formulas to a more dynamic understanding of form and expression.
Schadow’s Roman stay with his wife Marianne runs 1785–1787. There he:
- studied antiquities intensively in the Vatican collections and at the Villa Albani, a key Winckelmann site.spsg.de+1
- entered the competition at the Accademia di San Luca, coming second only to Canova—an enormous prestige victory.sisterMAG
🏛️ Historical and Theoretical Context
Neoclassicism and Ideal Beauty: Schadow and Greek Antik: Winckelmann behind everything
Long before Rome, Schadow is moving in a German intellectual world already saturated with Winckelmann’s Greece:
- Winckelmann’s ideal of “noble simplicity and quiet grandeur” defined what “Greek” meant for late-18th-c. classicism and is explicitly cited as underpinning neoclassical sculpture from Canova to Schadow.Wikipedia+1
- In the German context, there is a clear pedagogical line: Oeser → Goethe → Berlin Academy under Rode and then Schadow. That reform trajectory consciously uses Winckelmann’s aesthetics of Greek antiquity in academic training.Parker Studio Structural Sculpture+1
By the time Schadow reaches Rome, he is not discovering “Greece” naïvely through Canova; he is testing Winckelmann’s Greek ideal against the actual marbles of the Vatican and Villa Albani. Later critics explicitly measure his Prinzessinnengruppe against ancient statues celebrated by Winckelmann and by 19th-century archaeologists.id.smb.museum+1
So Schadow’s “Greek Antik” is not derivative Canovism. It is a self-conscious German reception of antiquity, informed by Winckelmann, filtered through Rome, and then re-worked for Berlin.
Goethe’s role: theory, friendship, and institutional power
Goethe’s importance for Schadow is both personal and theoretical:
- Schadow and Goethe became friends; Schadow portrayed Goethe in multiple medals and busts, and 19th-c. sources emphasize their mutual esteem.platypus1917.org+1
- Goethe later praised the Prinzessinnengruppe in exactly the terms of his own art theory: that the artist must know the ancients but not neglect nature—“antique law plus natural truth.”Parker Studio Structural Sculpture
- Via Wilhelm von Humboldt’s reforms, Goethe’s aesthetic ideas and Schadow’s practice are woven into the institutional fabric of the Berlin Academy (Rome Prize, cast collections, life-study, etc.), giving Schadow’s own research on proportion and “National-Physiognomie” a Goethean/Winckelmannian frame.Parker Studio Structural Sculpture+1
In other words: Goethe is not just a literary acquaintance; he is a key conceptual ally and validator of Schadow’s synthesis of antique study and living likeness.
Schadow’s own theoretical work
By mid-career Schadow is himself a theorist:
- He writes treatises on proportions of the human figure and on national physiognomy, which get translated and reprinted well into the 19th c.ResearchGate+1
- These texts stand on the same terrain as Winckelmann, Camper, Goethe, etc.—trying to reconcile:
- mathematical/proportional canons
- observed national/individual variation
- and the antique ideal.
This shows that Schadow isn’t simply absorbing Canova or Thorvaldsen; he’s actively working out his own canon of the body and head, grounded in his sustained study of Greek and Roman sculpture.
Take the Princesses Group as the practical test case:
- Its double portrait format, intimate psychology, and refined surface recall Canova, but:
- the pose and interlacing of the two figures closely echo antique twin and female pair groupings (Castor & Pollux, San Ildefonso group, etc.) that Schadow studied in Rome.Nonsite.org+1
- critics and museums now present it as a paradigmatic German interpretation of Winckelmann’s Greek ideal, not as a Canova pastiche.Staatliche Museen zu Berlin+1
Antique prototypes (via Rome & Winckelmann)
- Likeness / immediacy (Berlin court portrait practice)
- Goethean insistence on living nature
- Early Canovese grace of surface
= Schadow’s Berliner Klassizismus - Winckelmann’s Greek Antik as a theoretical horizon,
- Schadow’s own systematic study of antique statues in Rome,
- his friendship and dialogue with Goethe within the Weimar–Berlin intellectual network,
- and, on a more indirect, generational level, the prestige and presence of Thorvaldsen in the Roman/Schadow family milieu after 1800.
- Art as a System of Relationships: The text discusses “Verhältnisse” (relationships) and “Proportion” not as fixed rules but as guiding principles derived from conceptual understanding. This reflects a shift from formulaic teaching to a more philosophical and analytical approach to form—where beauty arises from the interplay of mass, movement, and proportion.
- Schadow’s Teaching Legacy: As director of the Academy, Schadow formalized curricula that integrated anatomy, perspective, and proportion. His writings and teachings influenced generations of artists, including those who would later contribute to Germanic regions Greek Antik influenced Romanticism and Germanic regions Greek Antik Hellenistic / Greco-Roman Greek extended Hellenistic influenced Realism. His double statue of Princesses Luise and Friederike is a prime example of his belief in expressive form and idealized beauty.
- F. Berger’s Role: While less is documented about Berger, his co-signature suggests he was a collaborator in Schadow’s pedagogical reforms. He likely contributed to the theoretical articulation of these ideas within the Academy’s curriculum.
✨ Key Themes in the Text
- Beauty vs. Nature: The authors distinguish between the “Lehre der Schönheit” (doctrine of beauty) and the “Lehre der Natur” (doctrine of nature), suggesting that artistic beauty transcends mere replication of nature—it must be interpreted and idealized, core elements of structural visual complex language content.
- Movement and Silhouette: The reference to “Silhouetten-Linien” and “Bewegung” (movement) indicates an interest in capturing dynamic form, possibly influenced by studies of gesture and anatomy, Greek Antik sculpture kinesiology, and the heritage content of sculpture of Greek Antik as always in process of arriving from and towards movement —important in both sculpture and drawing.
- Historical Anchoring: Mentioning artists like Peter Paul Rubens and John Cousin situates their theory within a broader European tradition, acknowledging past masters while proposing a refined, modernized approach.
This document is a rich artifact of 19th-century art pedagogy, revealing how Schadow and Berger sought to codify a method that balanced classical ideals with evolving artistic sensibilities.
Schadow’s ideas were influential across Germanic regions through the 19th century, shaping academic art education and sculpture, though their international reception remained more muted compared to contemporaries like Canova or Thorvaldsen.
🌍 International Reception in Schadow’s Time
- Limited Global Reach: While Schadow was respected in European artistic circles—especially for his Quadriga atop Berlin’s Brandenburg Gate and the Princesses Monument—his theoretical writings and pedagogical methods did not gain widespread traction outside German-speaking regions. Unlike Antonio Canova or Bertel Thorvaldsen, whose neoclassical sculptures were celebrated across Europe, Schadow’s influence remained largely regional.
- Rome and the Accademia di San Luca: Schadow did receive international recognition early in his career, winning a prize from the prestigious Accademia di San Luca in Rome in 1786. His time in Italy exposed him to classical ideals and artists like Canova, which informed his own theories on proportion and beauty.
- Artistic Exchange: Despite limited dissemination of his writings, Schadow’s emphasis on anatomical precision and expressive form resonated with artists trained in similar neoclassical traditions. His sculptures were admired for their clarity and emotional subtlety, contributing to broader European conversations about ideal beauty and movement.
🇩🇪 Influence in Germanic Regions (1830s–1880s)
- Berlin School of Sculpture: Schadow is considered the founder of the modern Berlin school of sculpture. His students, including Christian Daniel Rauch and Friedrich Tieck, extended his legacy by producing public monuments that balanced idealism with realism. Rauch’s statue of Frederick the Great exemplifies this synthesis.
- Academic Codification: Schadow’s theories were institutionalized through the Prussian Royal Academy of Arts, where he served as director. His emphasis on proportion, silhouette, and movement became core tenets of academic training in Berlin and influenced other German academies, including those in Dresden and Munich.
- Düsseldorf Academy: Though more focused on painting, the Düsseldorf Academy adopted Schadow’s structured approach to form and composition. His son, Wilhelm von Schadow, became a key figure there, further spreading his father’s pedagogical ideals.
- Persistence into the 1880s: Even as Romanticism and Realism gained ground, Schadow’s classical framework remained influential. Sculptors like Ernst Herter, Hoffmeister, Maison, Janssen, Pfuhl, von Weyr, Schilling, Leistner, Ungerer, Eberlein, Theodor Kalide, Emil Franz Richard Hundrieser, Ludwig Brunow, Nikolaus Geiger, Karlheinze & Reinhold Begas, though more aligned with the emerging neo-baroque style, were trained in environments shaped by Schadow’s legacy.
📚 Summary of Impact
| Region | Influence | Legacy |
| Germany | Strong and sustained | Academic sculpture, public monuments |
| Austria | Moderate | Shared neoclassical ideals, limited direct adoption |
| Italy | Early recognition | Prize from Accademia di San Luca |
| France/UK | Minimal | Overshadowed by native traditions and figures like David or Flaxman |
- [C] = closer to Canova / Roman “international” Neoclassicism
- [A] = directly antique-derived (specific prototypes or type)
- [W/G] = Winckelmann/Goethe / Berlin–philhellenic overlay (your Neo-Hellenistic layer: canon, measurement, glyptek-shape, national character, etc.)
I. Prinzessinnengruppe (Luise & Friederike)
Schadow’s group sits right in the three-way crossfire: his Canovian Roman training, explicit antique models, and a very Prussian / Winckelmannian Greek ideal filtered through Goethe’s cult of Luise.
1. Basic format: life-size, standing double statue, fully in the round
- What you see: Two life-size princesses, in close contact, slightly staggered in depth; conceived as a walk-around sculpture, not a façade relief.
- Antique prototype [A]: Scholarship explicitly links the group to the San Ildefonso marble (Prado) – the famous late-Augustan twin youths (Castor & Pollux / Orestes & Pylades) – as a key compositional model: slight offset of the bodies, one slightly behind, close but not fused, with a play of intimacy and distance. Nonsite.org+1
- Canova [C]: The decision for a quiet, full-figure portrait in the round, with a very controlled, “stage-less” setting (no elaborate architectural or funerary frame) is broadly Canovian: think of his standing portrait statues and “pure” figure formats in Rome.
- Winckelmann / Goethe [W/G]: German neoclassicism itself is defined as born from Winckelmann’s exaltation of Greek sculpture and the demand that artists study antiquity in Rome. Wikipedia+2Staatliche Museen zu Berlin+2 Schadow’s turning actual 1790s Prussian princesses into an “icon of European classicism” Staatliche Museen zu Berlin+1 is already a Winckelmannian operation: modern sitters mapped onto a Greek canon.
My read: Format is strongly [A+W/G], with Canova as the international schooling that makes that antique format viable for a Berlin court commission.
2. Poses, contrapposto, and mutual leaning
- What you see: Luise slightly forward and “right” (heraldic seniority), Friederike half-step behind; gentle contrapposto; upper bodies bending toward each other, a sisterly clasp. Wikipedia
- Antique [A]:
- The staggered pairing and subtle weight-shift recall not only San Ildefonso but also various Roman copies of Greek double statues (twin deities, hero pairs).
- The “one frontal / one slightly turned” pairing and interlocking silhouettes are very much antique pairing logic.
- Canova [C]:
- The softened contrapposto, almost “democratized grace,” feels close to Canova’s handling of standing female figures: not the violent torsion of Hellenistic baroque, but a continuous, sinuous axis.
- W/G + my Neo-Hellenistic vocabulary [W/G]:
- The way the two figures form a continuous serpentine contour, with no brutal breaks, fits your “glyptek” reading: masses interlaced in an optimum attraction, leg-to-hip-to-shoulder as one continuous rhythm rather than two isolated statues.
- Winckelmann’s “noble simplicity and quiet grandeur” (edle Einfalt und stille Größe) in gesture is here: the emotional content (sisterly affection, courtly dignity) is held inside controlled, measured poses rather than theatrical gesture.
My read: The pose logic is a tight braid of [A + C], but the temperament of those poses – their “cool grace” – is deeply [W/G].
3. Costume and drapery
- What you see: Contemporary late-18th-c dresses, but simplified: long vertical falls, only a few key fold-systems, almost no fussy trimmings. Schadow used the real wardrobe of the princesses and “let contemporary fashion influence the dress,” Wikipedia+1 yet he cleans it up for marble.
- Antique [A]:
- The structure of the drapery – a major vertical grave-stele “pillar” with secondary diagonals – is Greek.
- The removal of the original plaster’s Blumenkörbchen as a “non-classical” accessory, criticized by connoisseurs as a deviation from the classical ideal, is Schadow literally correcting his own composition toward an antique norm; in marble, the basket disappears and a drapery fold fills the visual role. Wikipedia+1
- Canova [C]:
- The relative thinness and clinging of the fabric, revealing body-structure beneath, has a Canovian flavor; but Schadow’s folds are less creamy and continuous.
- W/G [W/G]:
- The whole “court fashion translated into a Greek key” is exactly what a Winckelmann-minded, Berlin-philhellenic sculptor would do: retain historical specificity but subordinate it to an idealizing drapery grammar.
- Goethe’s own rapt description of Luise and Friederike as “heavenly visions, whose impression upon me will never be effaced” sets the discursive frame: their fashion becomes a vehicle for an almost allegorical Anmut rather than court portrait realism. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin+1
My read: Drapery is the clearest place where antique canon + Winckelmannian policing override pure Canovian imitation. Call it [A + W/G] with a Canovian surface memory.
4. Heads, physiognomy, and the famous Hals-/Kinnbinde
- What you see: Highly individualized portraits; the distinctive bandage / scarf around Luise’s jaw and neck; faces not generically “Greek” but idealized likenesses. Wikipedia+1
- Antique [A]:
- Head proportions and calm, frontal mask owe a lot to Greek portrait-types; but they are not literal copies.
- Canova [C]:
- The gentle, slightly “melted” transitions in facial planes (no harsh undercuts) are cousin to Canova, though Schadow is less sugary.
- W/G + Schadow’s own theory [W/G]:
- This is where Schadow’s later Polyklet and National-Physiognomien retroactively illuminate what he’s doing: he explicitly advocates measuring living bodies and comparing them with antique works to establish a canon of proportions and “types” of heads. Parker Studio Structural Sculpture+1
- The Halsbinde is telling: introduced to hide a swelling in Luise’s neck, yet quickly rationalized and then absorbed into a “mode” that became iconic of her image. Contemporary critics complain this shows how little room is left for idealization if court insists on such biographical details. Wikipedia+1 You can read this as the friction between Winckelmann’s ideal Greek head and Goethe’s/Prussia’s cult of a very specific queen.
- In my vocabulary: the head becomes the node where measured nature (anthropological data) and ideal canon are forced into a single glyptek shell.
My read: Heads are primarily [W/G + Schadow’s own anthropological classicism], with Canova and antique prototypes functioning as background training, not primary models.
5. Surface, modeling, and “glyptek” structure
- What you see: Crisp but not brittle transitions; a clear articulation of planes, especially in profiles and drapery edges; less waxy than Canova, more graphic.
- Antique [A]:
- The planar clarity – the way profiles read cleanly at distance – echoes Roman copies of Greek originals more than Canova’s velvety finish.
- Canova [C]:
- The overall polish and lack of obvious tool marks share the international neoclassical finish standard.
- W/G + Neo-Hellenistic glossary [W/G]:
- Recent writing on Schadow’s Academy emphasizes his obsession with measurement, proportion, and comparison with antique exemplars—the sculptor as half scientist. Parker Studio Structural Sculpture+1
- That yields the “structural” quality you like to call glyptek-shape: the group reads as a coherent block of interlocking masses, optimized for sightlines and quiet readability rather than tactile lusciousness. This is very Berlin and very Schadow, not Canova.
My read: In terms of how the marble is built, this is Schadow’s own structural classicism: decisively [W/G + his theory], with antique exemplars as calibration, and Canova only as general polish standard.
II. The Brandenburg Gate Quadriga
Here we’re earlier (quadriga 1793) and more overtly “state-symbolic.” It’s a big relief-in-the-round perched on an architectural Propylaea.
1. Typology: quadriga crowning a triumphal gate
- What you see: Four horses abreast, two-wheeled chariot, a standing female figure driving; originally a peace allegory (Eirene), later rebranded Victoria with Iron Cross and eagle. Wikipedia+1
- Antique [A]:
- The decision to crown a gate modeled on the Athenian Propylaea with a quadriga is straight from the antique repertory: triumphal quadrigae over arches and on pediments are a standard Greco-Roman type, familiar from reliefs, coins, and sculptural groups. Wikimedia Commons+1
- Schadow’s quadriga was explicitly noted as the first quadriga group created since antiquity, underlining that the type itself was understood as an antique revival. Wikipedia
- Canova [C]:
- Chronology: Schadow’s quadriga (1793) overlaps with his Roman formation, but there is no specific Canova quadriga model; what’s shared is a generalized Romanizing, severe Neoclassical idiom.
- W/G [W/G]:
- The original identification of the goddess as Eirene (Peace) entering the city, later recoded as Victoria with nationalist emblems, is a textbook case of Winckelmannian allegory harnessed to Prussian political myth. Wikipedia+1
- The very fact that this is the first new quadriga since antiquity is part of a broader German philhellenism (the self-conscious “return to Greece” traced by Marchand, etc.). Bryn Mawr Classical Review+1
My read: The basic concept is overwhelmingly [A + W/G] – an antique vehicle repurposed as a Prussian peace/victory canon.
2. Victoria/Eirene figure: stance, dress, attributes
- What you see: Standing goddess in the chariot, slightly forward, reins and staff; initially a wreath/olive-branch peace symbolism, later Iron Cross and eagle on the staff.
- Antique [A]:
- The iconography draws on antique Eirene/Peace and Victoria types: long chiton/himation, frontal or three-quarter stance, reins/attribute in one hand, staff or standard in the other.
- Canova [C]:
- You can sense a Canovian smoothing in her anatomical understructure and in the calm, rather modest gesture – no Baroque flutter, no overtly baroque cloak explosion.
- W/G [W/G]:
- The calm of the figure, even atop a triumphal vehicle, is pure Winckelmann: passions held within, a “great soul beneath the surface.”
- The later attribute swap (peace staff → Iron Cross + eagle) is the political re-coding of that same canonical body: the antique type is stable; the Prussian iconography is mutable. This is “overlay”: glyptek body, rotating emblem.
My read: Figure herself is [A] in type, [W/G] in emotional key, [C] only in finish.
3. Horses: motion, pairing, and rhythm
- What you see: Four horses almost in unison, but with slight differentiation of legs and heads; energetic but not wild.
- Antique [A]:
- They follow antique quadriga logic: the near pair slightly more active, the far pair slightly stabilizing; the whole group treated as one long, horizontal frieze-like band, echoing reliefs on Roman arches.
- Canova [C]:
- Compare to Canova’s horses in his equestrian monuments: idealized anatomy, reasonably calm, no Bernini-style frenzy. Schadow’s horses live in the same family: anatomically clarified, with musculature smoothed into large planes.
- W/G + my structural reading [W/G]:
- Rhythmically, the horses are organized so that their combined silhouette reads as a single glyptek mass from the square: no leg or head breaks the skyline in a chaotic way. This “optimum attraction of masses” – concentrated energy without fragmentation – is more Berlin-school structural thinking than a direct borrow from any antique group we can point to.
My read: Horse handling is [A + C] in vocabulary, but the compositional rigging (how they read as a block) feels very much [W/G + Schadow’s structural classicism].
4. Integration with the Gate: scale, profile, and state symbolism
- What you see: Quadriga proportioned to the Doric colonnade, seated squarely on the attic; silhouette visible from long axial views down Unter den Linden. Wikipedia+1
- Antique [A]:
- Langhans modeled the gate on the Athenian Propylaea; the quadriga functions like a crowning pedimental group or rooftop chariot familiar from ancient architecture. Wikimedia Commons+1
- Canova [C]:
- Not so much; Canova’s work didn’t typically have to negotiate with such a large architectural frame in this way.
- W/G [W/G]:
- Scaling and siting are where the Winckelmannian idea of a canonical public image of the state takes over. The quadriga becomes the visual shorthand for Prussian classicism itself—precisely why later generations read it as the “icon of Berlin” together with the Princess group. Wikipedia+1
My read: Integration with the gate is almost pure [W/G]: antique type in service of Prussian, philhellenic self-mythologizing.
3. Where Thorvaldsen actually belongs in this picture
Chronology and documentation matter here:
- Schadow’s Roman training (1785–87) is with Canova. Encyclopedia Britannica
- The quadriga is finished in 1793, the Princess group 1795–97. Wikipedia+1
- Thorvaldsen only becomes a major Roman force after 1800, influencing Rudolf (Ridolfo) Schadow and other younger German/Nordic sculptors. Contemporary sources explicitly talk about Thorvaldsen’s influence on Ridolfo’s work and on later 1810s–20s Berlin / Roman networks, not on Johann Gottfried’s 1790s key monuments. spsg.de+1
So for these two works:
- Thorvaldsen is not a plausible primary compositional source.
- What is shared is the larger Winckelmannian / Roman antiquarian field in which both Schadow and Thorvaldsen operate: measured Greek canon, neutral surfaces, and antique typologies.
Neo-Hellenistic glossary:
- Canova gives Schadow the “international Roman dialect” of classicism.
- Antique prototypes (San Ildefonso, quadriga types) provide the compositional grammar.
- Winckelmann + Goethe + Schadow’s own anthropological classicism provide the syntax—how those forms are charged with meaning, feeling, and “national physiognomy.”
- Thorvaldsen is more like a parallel branch of the same language that later shapes Schadow’s sons and students, not the generator of the Prinzessinnengruppe or quadriga.
The Prinzessinnengruppe (Luise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and her sister Friederike) by Johann Gottfried Schadow, Friedrichswerder Church, Berlin, 1796 and 1797 – marble
Simple external composition overview, not the actual complexity of the sculptural forms.
1. Overall group: macro glyptek frame
Before zooming into the arm, fix the big architecture in your mind.
1.1 Primary axes
- Primary vertical axis (Luise)
Think from the crown of Luise’s head down through the supporting leg: a slightly inclined vertical, not a plumb line. That axis:- Tilts a hair backward in the upper torso (court dignity, “held” chest).
- Returns forward at the pelvis and supporting leg (weight carried quietly, not baroquely).
- Counter-axis (Friederike)
Friederike’s mass is a half-step back and a half-step to the side, creating a counter-lean that keeps the whole group from feeling like a single stiff pilaster. Her axis crosses Luise’s, making the first big serpentine of the group: a broad S from Friederike’s head, down through her torso, across the clasp, and back up into Luise’s head. - Glyptek reading
At 20–30 feet, the pair reads as one volume whose mass is “pulled” inward toward the clasp of the arms and then released upward into the two heads. That is your optimum attraction of masses on the group level:- maximum “pull” at the joined hands and inner shoulders,
- relaxed outflow in the skirts and outer contours.
1.2 Main plane-families
From a standard frontal view:
- Frontal plane family: faces, front of torsos, frontal fall of skirts. These are relatively quiet, low-frequency planes.
- Oblique plane family: Luise’s right shoulder/arm, Friederike’s nearer shoulder/arm, turned slightly toward and into the shared center.
- Side plane family: outer contour of Luise’s right arm and drapery, outer contour of Friederike’s body—these act as the bounding “shell” of the glyptek.
Luise’s right arm + drapery loop sits precisely at the junction between the frontal and oblique plane families. It’s the hinge where the quiet frontal tablet (two princesses) begins to curl into three-dimensional space.
2. Luise’s right arm + drapery loop: plane-by-plane
I’ll walk from shoulder → upper arm → elbow wedge → forearm → wrist/hand → drapery loop, and for each segment I’ll tag:
- Glyptek function
- Planes & commensurability
- Serpentine axis inflection
- Optimum attraction
2.1 Shoulder root (scapula + upper chest)
Glyptek function
This is the “anchorage” where the arm is still torso. The shoulder cap is not a ball stuck on; it’s a flattened, slightly oblique boss that ties deltoid, clavicle, and upper chest into a single plate.
Planes & commensurability
- Front plane = upper pectoral / clavicular run: broad, quiet, slightly convex.
- Side plane = deltoid mass: a shorter, steeper plane that breaks away at a clear but soft ridge.
- The ratio is important: front plane is 1–1.5× larger in visual area than the side plane; that asymmetry keeps the shoulder from becoming a cube.
You could say: commensurate planes here are roughly 3:2 (broad front vs side cap).
Serpentine inflection
The shoulder doesn’t simply bulge and stop; its apex is displaced slightly forward of the arm’s eventual centerline, so the top of the deltoid is already “leaning into” the arm’s curve. This is the first twist of the arm’s serpentine axis.
Optimum attraction
This shoulder plane is strongly “magnetized” to:
- the slope of the neck
- the opposite (left) shoulder
- Friederike’s near shoulder
Together they form a shallow arching band of mass across the two figures, so the eye moves shoulder–shoulder–shoulder before dropping down.
2.2 Upper arm (humerus cylinder)
Now from deltoid down to just above the elbow.
Glyptek function
The upper arm is treated as a flattened cylinder, not a tube: Schadow compresses the roundness slightly, so it reads as two long, gently bending planes.
Planes & commensurability
Think of three main planes:
- Anterior plane: from near the shoulder down the biceps line—soft convex, sloping slightly inward toward the torso.
- Lateral plane: from deltoid into triceps—flatter, more vertical when seen in ¾.
- Posterior plane: mostly hidden from frontal view; you feel it only as a counter-pressure in the silhouette.
Commensurability here is in length and angle, not width:
- Anterior and lateral planes share almost the same length, but they meet at a very soft ridge; the angle between them is low.
- That low-angle break means the planes cooperate rather than fight; it reads as a single “sheath” rather than a faceted prism.
Serpentine inflection
The centerline of the upper arm is not straight: it bows very slightly outward (away from the torso) and then curves back as it approaches the elbow. This is the middle stroke of the arm’s S-curve.
Optimum attraction
The upper arm is visually pulled toward:
- upwards: shoulder/neck mass
- downwards: clasped hands
- inwards: breast / ribcage plane
So it acts as a diagonal tie-beam: it drags the viewer’s eye from the head-collar area down toward the hand-clasp, forming one side of a triangle (head – shoulder – clasp).
2.3 Elbow wedge (hinge plane)
This is the “break” where the upper and lower arm negotiate.
Glyptek function
Instead of a bony knob, the elbow is rendered as a small, flattened wedge: a plane-change that is big enough to be structural, but not so sharp it disrupts the line.
Planes & commensurability
Picture three micro-planes:
- Upper arm terminal plane: the slightly oblique surface where the upper arm seems to “end.”
- Elbow cap plane: small triangular wedge, opening downward and slightly outward.
- Forearm entry plane: begins just beyond the wedge, now rotated a few degrees.
The important thing is their relative scale:
- The elbow cap plane is small – maybe 1/4 the visual height of the upper-arm segment – so it registers as a hinge, not a separate block.
- Its angle is deliberately chosen so that its bisector points roughly toward the hand-clasp and toward the viewer’s vantage.
That’s commensurability: the hinge plane is exactly big and angled enough to redirect the arm without breaking the serpentine.
Serpentine inflection
The elbow wedge is where the S-curve changes sign: upper arm’s bow reverses into the forearm’s opposite bow. Seen in profile, it’s the “waist” of the arm’s snake-like line.
Optimum attraction
As a small but intensely directional plane, the elbow wedge points:
- Forward, toward the space of the clasp,
- Slightly upward, feeding the eye back to Luise’s face.
It becomes a “visual arrowhead,” a concentrated attractor at mid-span of the arm.
2.4 Forearm (radius–ulna segment)
From elbow to wrist.
Glyptek function
The forearm is slightly more faceted than the upper arm – the sculptural “energy” increases as we approach the focus. You can usually read:
- A top plane, catching light.
- A side plane, sliding down toward the thumb line.
- A faint underside plane, mostly in shadow.
Planes & commensurability
- Top plane: long, gently pitched, oriented almost like a ramp leading to the hand.
- Side plane: narrower, steeper; its edge line along the ulna becomes a secondary contour that sets up the drapery loop.
- Underside: a narrow shadow band that keeps the arm visually separate from the cloth.
The scaling again is deliberate:
- Top plane >> side plane >> underside plane (in visible area from frontal ¾).
- That hierarchy makes the forearm’s top the dominant carrier of direction.
Serpentine inflection
If the upper arm bowed outward and then back, the forearm bows forward again, aiming the hand slightly into the viewer’s space. In plan-view terms, the arm describes a shallow S around the torso’s frontal plane.
Optimum attraction
The forearm is like a beam of light aimed at three things:
- The clasped hands (local focus)
- The drapery loop (secondary focus)
- The negative space between Luise and Friederike (spatial focus)
Its dominant top plane makes the eye slide along it as if on rails.
2.5 Wrist and hand (clasp point)
The hand is the end of the serpentine; structurally it’s a node, not just an extremity.
Glyptek function
Luise’s hand (depending on which version you’re looking at) forms either a partial clasp with Friederike or a supportive touch. This is the physical weld joining the two figures.
Planes & commensurability
- Back-of-hand plane: small but nearly frontal to the viewer – a little tablet.
- Finger planes: a fan, each slightly rotated, forming a radius of tiny planes.
- Thumb plane: a counter-fan that hooks around the drapery or Friederike’s hand.
The key commensurability is scale: the back-of-hand plane is just large enough to be legible from distance, but small enough that the mass of the clasp doesn’t outweigh the heads.
Serpentine inflection
The serpentine that started at the shoulder now terminates in a graceful inward coil – the fingers curve back toward the centerline, as if closing the loop of inward attraction.
Optimum attraction
This is the peak of local attraction:
- All directional vectors – from shoulders, upper arms, forearms, and drapery – converge here.
- It is the geometric middle of the group’s emotional “quiet drama.”
In my terms, it’s where the glyptek’s various interlacing masses are at maximum mutual attraction, before relaxing back out into skirts and outer contours.
2.6 Drapery loop partnering the arm
Now the cloth that loops from torso toward the arm/hand.
Glyptek function
The drapery loop is a counter-curve that does three things at once:
- Binds the arm back to the body (no disembodied “stick”).
- Creates a secondary serpentine that echoes the arm.
- Generates a negative-space aperture through which we read depth.
Planes & commensurability
- Outer surface of the loop = broad, low-frequency plane, slightly convex.
- Inner surface (toward the body) = tighter concavity, more broken by folds.
- Edge-planes along the hem = a chain of small, sharply angled facets.
The commensurate relation:
- The outer loop plane is scaled to rhyme with the outer plane of the upper arm—if you squint, arm + drapery loop read as one larger “S” silhouette.
- The inner loop concavity is scaled to match the width of the negative space under the forearm; that resonates with the shadow under the chin and under the breasts—repeating “cup-shaped” shadow units.
Serpentine inflection
While the arm’s serpentine runs shoulder → hand, the cloth’s runs torso → elbow region and then out and back. At some angles they read as twinned S-curves, slightly out of phase, creating a richer rhythm instead of a single line.
Optimum attraction
- Mass-wise, the loop pulls the eye back to the torso from the hand, preventing the arm from feeling like a lateral dead-end.
- It also softens the negative space so that the shadow pocket is inviting, not harsh; the dark aperture becomes a “magnet” for the eye that then bounces back to the faces.
So the drapery loop is a massive, slow counterweight to the arm’s slender, fast vector: one long slow curve wrapping a quicker, lighter one.
3. How these local decisions feed the whole sculpture
When you step back to full-figure and group scale:
- Glyptek shape
- Luise’s right arm + drapery loop is one of the three main interlacing bands in the group:
- Head–shoulder–arm–clasp band (Luise’s main diagonal)
- Friederike’s mirroring diagonal
- The big skirt volume with its own diagonal folds
- Those three bands cross and bind like twisted ribbons, giving the group its coherent glyptek shell.
- Luise’s right arm + drapery loop is one of the three main interlacing bands in the group:
- Commensurate planes
- The plane-units in the arm/drapery passage (moderate-sized, low-frequency) are scaled to match plane-units in:
- the faces and necks
- the chest and collarbones
- certain major folds of the skirts
- You get a repeating “vocabulary” of plane sizes and angles. That’s what makes the piece feel one language, not patched together.
- The plane-units in the arm/drapery passage (moderate-sized, low-frequency) are scaled to match plane-units in:
- Serpentine axis
- The arm’s S-curve is a micro-echo of the macro serpentine formed by:
- Luise’s head tilt
- her upper-torso bend
- the leg stance
- and then, crosswise, Friederike’s matching contrapposto.
- The arm is the most legible S because it’s isolated in space; your eye recognizes it and then unconsciously projects that rhythm back into the bodies.
- The arm’s S-curve is a micro-echo of the macro serpentine formed by:
- Optimum attraction of masses
- At the group level, the “gravitational center” is the cluster: two heads / joined hands / inner shoulders.
- Luise’s right arm and the drapery loop are crucial because they pull mass inward from the right flank and then feed the eye into that center cluster.
- Without that arm/drapery architecture, the group would risk:
- either splitting into two parallel verticals, or
- collapsing into a single block without an inner focus.
You can use this as a working method in your own modeling:
- Start by placing your primary glyptek bands (head–shoulder–arm–hand; counterfigure band; lower mass band).
- Then, for each limb + drapery unit, consciously choose:
- A dominant plane family (frontal / oblique / lateral).
- A simple S-curve path.
- One small hinge plane (like the elbow wedge) that handles the direction change.
- One cloth-loop or accessory that acts as the slow counter-curve and binds the limb back to the torso.
